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THE JOURNAL

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Microscopical Club.

EDITED BY

HENRY F. aAILES.

SECOND

IBS.

VOLUME I.

Honfccm :

[Published fok the Club.]
DAVID BOGUE,

3, St. Martin's Place, Trafalgar Square.

THE JOURNA

OF THE

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On Fluid Cavities in Meteorites.

By Heinrich Hensoldt.

(Bead August 26, 1881.)

The paper which I have now the honour to read before this
audience is the outcome of a discovery, furnished by accident, which
I was fortunate enough to make about two years ago, and to
which I attach some importance, having strong reasons for believing
it to be original.

A series of observations and experiments, resulting from this
discovery, have led to the accumulation of a number of facts which
I consider to be of sufficient interest to justify the desire to make
them more generally known.

The discovery consists in the detection of fluid cavities in a
fragment of material which is undoubtedly of meteoric origin ; at
least, it was obtained under conditions which admit of no other ex-
planation, as I will immediately proceed to show.

On the 19th of March, 1879, early in the morning, a shepherd,
occupied with the erection of a pen in a field near Braunfels, a
small town in the Rhine Province, Germany, was startled by a
peculiar noise in the air above him, which he describes as a series
of detonations, following each other in rapid succession ; the whole
being accompanied by a violent hissing. According to his narra-
tion, the whole phenomenon, which did not occupy more than about
three seconds, bore a great resemblance to a clap of thunder, fol-
lowed by a flash of lightning. There was, however, a clear, though
not quite cloudless sky, and not the least indication of a thunder-
storm observable.

Journ, Q. M. C, Series II., No. 1. b

2 H. HENSOLDT ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES.

Immediately afterwards, or at the same time, he noticed, in an
adjoining field, fragments of earth and stone flying up as if the soil
were being penetrated by some body displaying great force in its
downward course.

The penetrating substance, which was found broken, or rather
cracked, in several places, was subsequently discovered about 25 inches
under the surface. It was an elongated, roundish mass, whose
greatest diameter was about 11 inches; but a piece, which evidently
had been severed from it by explosion before it reached the ground,
and which must have been pretty large, was missing. In spite of
very careful search in the neighbouring fields, this fragment was
never found. The mass, which in the main presented the outlines
of an irregular cone, had several branch-like protuberances on
various parts of its surface ; and showed every sign of having been
in a state of fusion. Except where the missing portion was broken
off, it exhibited no sharp ridges or edges ; every part of its exterior
being smooth and roundish. Though when dug out no longer
warm, there were evidences pointing to the conclusion that it was
in a highly heated condition when entering the ground.
Portions of the somewhat sandy soil were found fused toge-
ther, in close proximity to its position ; and the sur-
face of the object itself was covered with a thin crust, which, on
after-examination, proved to possess no relationship with the com-
ponent parts of the interior, and which evidently could have only
been acquired by a highly heated substance coming in contact with
fusible, sandy materials. The complete weight of all the frag-
ments found was a little over 121bs., and if we estimate the size of
the missing piece by the proportions of the mass discovered, the
weight of the complete meteorite may have been 201bs. All the
pieces found were obtained by my father, Mr. M. Hensoldt, of
Wetzlar, who has still the greatest part of them in his possession.

Steps were then taken to ascertain, if possible, the nature of the
components of this interesting visitor from another sphere, and not
being sufficiently familiar with the tests furnished by analytical
chemistry as to have direct resort to that means, but possessing
some experience in determining the components of a mineral by
microscopical investigation, we set to work by selecting one of the
fragments, and cutting it into pieces in order to obtain a number
of thin sections. In preparing these sections great difficulty was
experienced owing to the extreme hardness of the material. Emery

H. HENSOLDT ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES. 3

was found scarcely effigient as a working substance, for it produced
hardly any impression on the meteoric mass. By means of large
and thin copper discs, rotating vertically on a lathe, and under the
application of diamond powder, the fragment was reduced into
sections of about one-eighth of an inch in thickness, and these,
after having been polished carefully on one side, were fixed with
balsam on a glass plate, and ground as thin as was compatible
with their texture; and by the final polishing of the other side a
degree of transparency was reached more than sufficient for micro-
scopical examination.

Before, however, proceeding to describe the features which the
sections exhibited under the microscope, I consider it of importance
to mention the aspect which a polished surface of the material
presented on examination with an ordinary pocket-lens. The
polish, which, owing to the hardness of the material, is of consider-
able brilliancy, reveals two distinct substances, which appear to be
the sole components of the meteorite. The one, of high metallic
lustre, bearing a striking resemblance to polished steel or iron, is
distributed in the shape of a minute network ; the other, of a
glassy character, filling the meshes of the network in so complete
a manner that no vacuum of any sort is visible.

The shining substance of metallic lustre we at once considered
to be metallic iron ; a view which its great resemblance to that
element, the weight of the material, and the frequent occurrence
of metallic iron in meteorites, seemed to justify. This belief was
^further strengthened by the striking resemblance which a broken
surface of the object bore to a broken surface of cast iron ; the
similarity being so great that it was difficult to point out any main
features of deviation. But though we have held this opinion for
nearly two years, I have quite recently, in consequence of more
elaborate experiments, come to the conclusion that this substance
is not iron in its pure or merely alloyed condition, but is a com-
bination of that metal with a non-metallic element. This discovery
seems, however, to lend only additional interest and importance to
the matter, as I will attempt to show later on.

The observations made on the examination of a complete section
under a low power of the microscope corresponded with, and con-
firmed those made previously with a pocket-lens. There appeared
to be only two materials present ; exhibiting, however, a striking
contrast to each other — the one black, amorphous, and absolutely

4 H. HENSOLDT ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES.

opaque ; the other colourless, crystalline, and transparent.
The transparent material did not present itself in the form of
definitely shaped crystals, but of a multitude of patches, exhibiting
every variety of shape and irregularity. In point of relative
quantity the two components seemed to be very evenly balanced,
the transparent material occurring with the same frequency and
bulk as the opaque, although in putting it precisely, I should feel
inclined to say that the crystalline matter appeared to indicate
a slight preponderance over the amorphous. The whole section,
indeed, resembles a network of dark, opaque matter, in which the
transparent masses are imbedded.

Although, as already stated, the transparent patches do not
exhibit distinct crystallic outlines, it is by no means difficult to
infer from their general appearance that they once possessed dis-
tinct crystallic forms ; that they are, indeed, the fragments of
crystals, which have, through the agency of violent forces, crush-
ing, or sudden heating, been shattered and dislocated from their
original positions.

But another feature is exhibited by these transparent masses,
and one which is not so easily perceptible as the points to which I
have already drawn attention. On examination with a 2in. objective,
we already see scattered over the crystallic fragments, as I may
call them, numerous fine points or dots, which in many instances
occur in such considerable quantities as to form cloudy congrega-
tions, impairing to a slight degree the otherwise very perfect
transparency of the crystalline matter.

It is to these fine dots that we shall now have to direct our chief
attention, as the phenomena which they present, and the problems
which they suggest, form the essence of this paper.

On mere superficial examination, those a little versed in micro-
scopic petrology would consider these cloudy congregations of fine
points to be microlites or crystallites ; those minute bodies which
are, as modern research has established beyond any doubt, the true
elements of which the crystals are built up. They are present
when crystallic forces are about to begin operation, and are
likewise originated when crystals are undergoing a disintegrating
process, as examples of numerous rock sections show us.

As we, however, increase the magnifying power of the microscope,
these fine dots gradually enlarge, until each ultimately expands
into a well-defined cell or cavity, which, according to its size, con-

H. HENSOLDT ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES.

tains, in almost every instance, a more or less large, roundish
body in a state of continual motion. It is evident that these
cavities contain a liquid of some sort, that they are, in fact, fluid
enclosures, and that the moving bodies are bubbles of a gaseous
nature, which are continually driven about by the variations in the
temperature of the atmosphere, owing to their exquisite sensitiveness
in consequence of their minuteness. The cavities are by no means of
a uniform appearance, but exhibit every variety of size and form ;
nor does their grouping indicate the least order or regularity.

In the larger cavities I invariably found the bubbles to move
slower, in some very slow indeed, and in the very largest the
motion is scarcely perceptible ; but if we examine the medium-
sized and smaller cavities, we are startled to observe a very lively
motion of the bubble in the interior. Indeed, I may safely say
the rapidity of the motion of the bubbles is quite in proportion to
the relative size of the cavities in which they occur.

Now the discovery of cavities in crystals, containing liquid
matter, is by no means original, but is very old, as most of us will
know. Rock-crystal, amethyst, and other minerals of the quartz
type frequently contain liquid cavities, for the detection of which
neither microscope nor pocket-lens is needed ; cavities often so
large that they have been known to contain several ounces of
liquid matter. Even the discovery of microscopic liquid cavities
containing moving gaseous bubbles has not been very recently
effected, but is at least several years old. Very ingenious
attempts have been made to establish the nature of these im-
prisoned liquids, and in many, if not in most cases facts have been
ascertained from which very safe conclusions may be drawn,
although the presence of most of the liquids in crystals has not
yet been satisfactorily explained, owing to our still very imper-
fect knowledge of the laws which govern the formation of those
extraordinary and mysterious bodies, the crystals.

But the discovery of liquid cavities in a meteorite is, as I have
strong reasons to believe, original ; at least, there is no instance
on record of its having been previously made ; and in the following
I shall attempt to show the importance of this discovery, and the
new light which it throws on meteorites, giving support to some
theories, while antagonistic to others, respecting the origin of these
remarkable objects.

Four years ago, Mr. Noel Hartley read a paper on fluid cavities

6 H. HENS0LDT OX FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES.

before the Chemical Society, which was subsequently printed in
the Journal of that Society (March, 1877), in which he gave a
most interesting account of his observations on this subject. After
a series of elaborate experiments in order to establish the nature
of the contents of cavities in topazes, sapphires, &c, he came to
the conclusion (as others had already done before him) that in very
many instances the imprisoned liquids consisted of the gas known
as carbon-dioxyde, or carbonic acid, which, under certain conditions,
can exist in a liquid state.

As a rule, the fluid occurring in the cavities of crystals had
been found to be water, often containing high percentages of
saline matter in solution. Sometimes, as Prof. Judd points out
in his recently published work on Volcanoes, the saline matters are
present in such quantities that they cannot all pass into solution,
but crystallize out ; and thus we frequently find cubic crystals of
the chlorides of sodium and potassium floating in the liquids. In
several cases the liquids have been found to be hydro-carbons, oily
substances analogous to naphtha and petroleum.

From experiments I have made, similar, though not so exhaus-
tive as those conducted by Mr. Hartley, I have ascertained
that the liquid contained in the minute cavities of this
meteorite is neither water nor a hydro-carbon, but that there can
be hardly any doubt that it is liquefied carbonic acid. On warming
the slide the gaseous bubbles disappear when a temperature of
about 30° C. is reached, but return again on cooling, without any
apparent diminution in size or moving capacity. Now, between
30° and 31° C. lies the so-called " critical point " of carbonic acid ;
that is, above this temperature carbonic acid cannot exist in its
liquid condition, however great the pressure may be to which it is
exposed. This is in accordance with an interesting law, the exist-
ence of which has been proved beyond any doubt by recent in-
vestigation. After certain temperatures are reached liquids enter
into the gaseous state, no matter what the pressure may be. The
temperature under which a certain liquid is no longer able to retain
its characteristic features, but transforms itself into a gas, has
been called by Prof. Andrews, of Belfast, its " critical point ;" and
from experiments made by him it has been convincingly shown
that it is not possible to maintain the liquid condition of carbonic
acid at any temperature beyond 30° 92' C.

In all the cavities contained in the meteoric sections which have

H. HENSOLDT ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES. 7

come under my observation the bubbles suddenly vanished at a
temperature of from 30° to 31° C, sometimes even exhibiting that
peculiar phenomenon of ebullition to which Mr. Hartley, four
years ago, has already drawn attention. Now, if the enclosed
fluids had been water, the bubbles would not have shown the least
indication of a change at this temperature. I heated a section of
quartz, the cavities in which I knew to contain water, to the boil-
ing point, without detecting the smallest effect on the bubbles.

Mr. Hartley, in numerous instances, found water and liquefied
carbonic acid in the same cavity occurring in topazes, &c, the
carbonic acid, from its lesser specific weight, floating on the surface
of the water, and when he warmed the section the carbonic acid
would become gaseous at 31° C, leaving only the water in its
liquid condition ; but I have made no similar observation in this
meteorite. I found only one liquid present, and this in every case
appeared to be carbonic acid.

Among the many chemical tests which have been resorted to in
order to determine the presence of carbonic acid in mineral cavities,
I will only mention one, which has been quoted already by Mr.
Hartley. Vogelsang and Geissler, of Bonn, crushed rock-crystal
in which cavities occurred, which they suspected to contain liquefied
carbonic acid, under baryta water, and observed that the latter
became turbid owing to the formation of carbonate of baryta.

Now, taking for granted that the fluid material contained in the
cavities of this meteorite which fell near Braunfels, is really
liquefied carbonic acid, which we may safely do, as it presents no
points of analogy to any other known substance ; and that the
bubbles, which move so restlessly about in their tiny prisons, are
the same substance in its gaseous condition ; what do these facts
teach us respecting the circumstances under which the meteoric
mass was originally formed ?

In recent years the belief has been gaining ground that meteor-
ites are independent planetary bodies, miniature planets, so to
speak, whose formation took place under conditions similar to
those under which globes like this earth or Jupiter rose into being.
From the fact that numerous planets very much smaller than the
earth have been discovered, and that every improvement in the
optical efficiency of telescopes adds to their number, and from the
fact that streams of planetary bodies of minute size are known to
move in regular orbits through the solar system, it is argued that

8 H. HENSOLDT ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES.

from the most gigantic planet to the minutest meteoric dust, we
have to deal with the same class of existences ; that the same pro-
cesses led to the formation of all ; that they are so interlinked by-
mere gradations regarding size and physical aspect that the term
"meteorite" becomes vague, as we cannot draw the line where the
planet ceases and the meteorite begins.

Now, such an assumption could be quite brought to harmonize
with the hypothesis of Laplace respecting the origin of the
heavenly bodies. The same laws which, in accordance with it,
caused the formation of bodies, from the largest fixed star down to
the smallest planet, might well lead to the origination of meteor-
ites, if we only allow them a more elaborate scope of operation.
Given favourable conditions, there is practically no limit in the
grasp and grandeur of their achievements. " The solar system " (to
quote Prof. Judd) " was formerly conceived of as a vast solitude
through which a few gigantic bodies moved at awful distances from
one another. Now, we know that the supposed empty void is
traversed by countless myriads of bodies of the most varied dimen-
sions, all moving in certain definite paths in obedience to the same
laws, ever acting and reacting upon each other, and occasionally
coming into collision."

Now, however plausible the independent formation of the so-
called meteorites may appear, that is, how r ever feasible it may be
to identify their existence with the same process which led to the
origination of the planets, and however well such a presumption
may harmonize with the teachings of a widely recognised hypothesis,
I believe I am justified in saying that the discovery of fluid en-
closures in a meteorite must cause us to pause before we indulge in
any further speculations from that starting point, as it is altogether
antagonistic to it. The presence of these minute quantities of
liquefied carbonic acid in a mass of meteoric origin is fatal to the
presumption that meteorites are minute planets, formed under con-
ditions similar to those which accompanied the development of
those larger celestial bodies, which we have hitherto recognised as
planets. These drops of carbonic acid, infinitesimal though they
are, speak in a language which cannot be misunderstood, con-
vincing us in the most conclusive fashion that at least the meteorite
in which they occur has existed, or found existence, under circum-
stances which are incompatible with the assumption of its isolated
development.

H. HENSOLDT ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES. »

Carbonic acid is a gas which can become reduced to the con-
dition of a liquid only under extreme pressure. Wherever we find
enclosures of liquefied carbonic acid in terrestrial rocks, (and we find
them frequently), we may take it for granted that the formation of
those rocks has taken place deep in the earth's crust, under the
gigantic weight of superincumbent masses. It has been found that
cavities containing liquefied carbonic acid often occur in Basalts and
other so-called basic lavas, which are known to be derived from deep-
seated reservoirs beneath volcanoes, where, besides the weight of
tremendous rock-masses above, we have the compressing force of
great quantities of elastic vapour held in confinement ; while in the
so-called acid lavas, of which we possess very conclusive evidence
that they are formed at no such very great depths, the presence of
liquefied carbonic acid is extremely rare and exceptional. The
fact that these liquid cavities are often contained in the crystals of
granitic rocks is regarded by geologists as a most important evi-
dence that the granites have been formed deep in the earth's crust,
under conditions of enormous pressure ; and we never find this
liquid in sedimentary strata, or any other materials which are un-
likely to have been exposed to extreme pressure during their
formation.

It has been attempted to explain the presence of liquefied carbonic
acid in the cavities of crystals, by the assumption of its origination
through chemical processes, through changes which might have
taken place in certain portions of the crystals, leading to the
freeing and subsequent compression of the gas ; but even the most
ingenious argument which has been advanced, or could be advanced,
to support such a theory, on closer examination hopelessly falls to
the ground, leaving not the smallest room for doubt that all
crystals occurring in terrestrial rock-masses, whicli contain
enclosures of liquefied carbonic acid, must have been formed under
conditions of enormous pressure, which we can only conceive to
have taken place deep under the surface of our planet.

But how about extra-terrestrial rock-masses? How about
meteorites in which we find liquefied carbonic acid in millions of
minute cavities? Could they have been originated under circum-
stances totally different from those which prevail on this globe ?
Could the carbonic acid in them have been condensed to a liquid
without extreme pressure ? Certainly not ; this would be little
short of a miracle, and as we cannot conceive the possibility of

10 H. HENSOLDT ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES.

such a great pressure iu a meteorite, we are brought to the con-
clusion that those bodies at one time of their history existed in the
interior of mightier masses, planets, perhaps, of which they are the
fragments.

It has, as we know, been ascertained, by means of the spectro-
scope, that the fixed stars are for the greatest part composed of the
same elements as those which form this globe ; and that most of the
planets that are within our observation are composed of materials
very similar to those which constitute the earth we have strong
reasons for believing. Then we know that in the sun such a high
temperature exists that all the non-metallic elements, and many of
the metallic, are in the condition of vapour, and the rest of the
metals in a state of fiery liquid ; and that probably all the fixed
stars are similar masses in different stages of cooling. We further-
more find traces of mighty igneous action on those planets which
are nearest to our observation ; for instance, the moon, which is
covered in many parts of its surface with volcanoes on the grandest
scale (now 7 , as it seems, extinct for ever), and our own earth yet
displays mighty volcanic forces, which seem to have been grander
still in the past.

Although, as Prof. Judd has shown in his recent publication, the
presence of volcanic elements on our globe may be very well ex-
plained without assuming that the interior of the earth is a molten
mass, yet there appears to be very little room for doubt that the
earth was once in the same condition as the sun now, and that all
the subsequent changes have been effected through cooling, and
we may safely infer that the history of all the planets presents the
same features.

What, therefore, can there be improbable in the supposition that
among the myriads of those fiery drops, or half-cooled orbs, but in
whose interiors mighty volcanic elements still are busy, one should
explode now and then, and people the universe with its fragments ?
We have evidence to prove that in past periods of the earth's
history the explosive force of vapours held in confinement in the
interior of our planet has been great enough to blow away
mountains ten miles in diameter, leaving chasms which are now in
many instances filled by lakes ;* and what eruptive power has been
able to achieve on this globe as recently as 1772 is shown by
an occurrence in the island of Java, where a volcano, 9,000 feet

* Judd, "Volcanoes," pp.170 to 174.

H. HENSOLDT ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES. 11

high, called Papandayang, suddenly burst into eruption, and in a
single night threw thirty thousand million cubic feet of materials
into the atmosphere, which fell upon the country around, burying
no less than forty villages. After the eruption, the volcano was
found to have been reduced in height from 9,000 to 5,000 feet,
and to present a vast crater in its midst, which had been formed by
the ejection of the enormous mass of materials.

That heavenly bodies, such as fixed stars or planets, should be
capable of exploding, seems not only possible, but extremely
probable. If in the interior of our own planet the force of vapours
held in confinement has been great enough to transplant gigantic
mountains, and to effect the most appalling changes in the aspect
of the surface, there is nothing illogical in the conclusion that vast
accumulations of gases may lead to the shattering of whole worlds,
or that the violence of explosion may ruin them partly, hurling
fragments far enough to place them beyond the attraction of the
remaining wrecks.

On such stupendous explosions taking place, it is almost certain
that great numbers of fragments would be sent through space in
similar directions, forming swarms, which, on coming within the
attraction of some great body, would take definite courses, while
many others would be so directed as to diverge, the further they
move, till each pursues a solitary path. The magnificent showers
of so-called " shooting stars " have been proved to be caused by
the passage of the earth through such bands of travelling bodies ;
and even comets have now been identified with streams of
planetary bodies of minute size, moving in regular orbits through
our system.

Now, as it is extremely probable that meteorites are fragments
of celestial bodies, vastly mightier than themselves, their closer
examination leads us to the conclusion that at least those which
have from time to time fallen upon the earth's surface are derived
from planets very similar to, if not identical in their composition
with our globe.

The existing literature on meteorites is very poor ; fifty years
ago there were hardly two works to be found exclusively devoted
to meteorites, and at the present moment we are only in the
possession of very few and isolated attempts to treat the subject
with the amount of attention which its importance deserves.

There has not as yet been discovered in a meteorite one single
element which does not also occur on the earth, and the mineral

12 H. HENSOLDT ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES.

combinations under which these elements present themselves are,
with but few exceptions, those with which we are familiar among
terrestrial rocks. Chief among the materials which are the most
frequent components of meteorites is iron in its pure metallic state.
Indeed, by far the greatest number of the meteorites in our
museums and private collections are masses of iron, and in the
majority of the remainder metallic iron is present in greater or less
quantity.

It was therefore customary at first to divide meteorites into two
sections — into the meteoric stones and the meteoric iron — until
recently, after more elaborate investigation, a more complicated
classification has been resorted to, and M. Daubree, divides the
meteorites into Holosiderites, or such as consist almost entirely of
metallic iron ; Syssiderites, in which a network of metallic iron
encloses a number of granular masses of stony materials ; Spora-
closiderites, consisting of stony materials through which particles of
metallic iron are dispersed ; and fourthly, Asiderites, or such
as contain no metallic iron, but consist entirely of stony material.

Now, besides the presence of liquefied carbonic acid, which I may
safely say has been established in the meteorite of Braunfels, there
is a series of other evidences which the limit of this paper does
not permit me to dwell upon as fully as I should wish, bearing
strong proofs that this and perhaps most meteorites are not only
derived from mightier masses, but that they come from the interiors
of those masses, and are the resultants of explosions.

If we examine those minerals which most frequently occur in
meteorites, we are startled to observe that they are, almost without
exception, those which constitute the basic lavas, those volcanic
productions which, as I have already pointed out, are derived from
the deepest-seated igneous reservoirs in the crust of our planet.

Olivine, Enstatite, Augite, Anorthite, Magnetite, and Chromite,
are most frequently contained in meteorites, and they are the
minerals of which the so-called basic and ultra-basic lavas almost
exclusively consist. Masses bearing the most striking resemblance
to meteorites, and being composed of substances identical with
those which constitute the latter, are sometimes ejected from
volcanic vents in the shape of so-called volcanic bombs, and even
metallic iron, which never was believed to occur in terrestrial rocks,
has now been discovered in basaltic stones, alloyed even with those
two other metals, Nickel and Cobalt, which form so characteristic a
feature in the iron of meteoric origin.

H. IIENSOLDT ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES 13

We know comparatively little of the interior of oar planet, being
only acquainted with a very insignificant portion of its crust; and
even the basic lavas, which in all probability represent the deepest
known regions of that crust, furnish us with but very scanty infor-
mation respecting the nature of the vastnesses beneath.

But though we shall probably never be able to ascertain the
condition of the interior of the earth by direct observation, we are
in the position to say that the masses forming this interior are
different from those which constitute the crust. It has been
established that the average density of the materials which com-
pose the globe is 5-| times greater than that of water, but that the
density of the materials composing its crust is not quite three times
that of water. We are thus driven to the conclusion that the
interior portions of the globe are composed of materials having
twice the density of the rocks which we find at the surface.

Now it seems to me that in the meteorites which from time to
time have fallen upon the earth's surface, we have been provided
with a most important collection of objects on which to study the
condition of its interior. Being the fragments of other planets,
they confirm in a remarkable manner those general conclusions
which we have been enabled to draw from undisputed facts re-
garding the interior of the globe. The density of by far the largest
number of them wonderfully coincides with that of the greater
portion of the globe. It has been often pointed out that the
interior of the earth is in all probability one vast metallic mass,
either liquid or solid, consisting for the greatest part of iron ; and
among the meteorites we have a great preponderance of iron masses,
while the different classes of meteoric stones represent a variety of
lesser depths, those which are of an essentially stony character being
derived from portions of the crust.

Now, from these general remarks on meteorites, and what they
teach us respecting the interior of our planet, and the condition of a
great portion of the universe at large, I must, before concluding
this paper, return once more to the meteorite of Braunfels, which
remains the subject of our closer attention.

I have described how a thin section shows this meteorite to be
composed of two materials, one crystalline and transparent, and the
other amorphous and opaque. The transparent material I have
found to be a silicate of the Phenacite group, and closely re-
sembling Phenacite in all its characteristics ; and the amorphous
substance, which so strikingly resembles iron in its pure metallic

14 H. HENSOLDT ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES.

state, I have found to be iron, combined with about 1 5 per cent, of
Oxygen, presenting a peculiar mineral somewhat analogous to the
sesquioxyde of iron, yet possessing most of the properties of pure
iron. I am inclined to attach considerable importance to this latter
circumstance, as a similar combination has not before been
observed in any known meteorite ; and if time only permitted me, I
would try to show its particular value in the study of these remark-
able objects.

I would class the meteorite of Braunfels among the Syssiderites
of M. Daubree, that section of meteorites in which a network of
iron encloses a number of granular masses of stony materials ; for
although the substance which constitutes the network in this
instance is not pure metallic iron, its deviation from that metal is
not sufficiently apparent to warrant the drawing up of a new class
of meteorites, unless we consider them entirely from the basis of
their chemical components.

Respecting the fluid cavities, it may be urged that, considering
that I have not as yet been able to attest the nature of their con-
tents by direct analysis, I am not justified in taking for granted
that the liquid which has come under my observation is carbonic
acid. To this I would reply that if my experiments do not enable
me to absolutely prove the presence of liquefied carbonic acid in the
cavities of this meteorite, their results at least permit me to say
that if the liquid should, contrary to all expectation, not be carbonic
acid, it must be an extremely volatile substance so closely resem-
bling carbonic acid in all its peculiarities, that those general con-
clusions which I have drawn from its presence respecting the origin
of the meteorite, &c, would not in the least be impaired.

In concluding this paper, I must, in a certain sense, apologise
for bringing a subject which seems to involve so much of mineralogy
and physics before a Society so exclusively devoted to microscopy
as the Quekett Microscopical Club. I might have easily confined
myself to the mere aspect, under the microscope, of the sections of
the meteorite of Braunfels, and to my observations on their fluid
enclosures ; but I could not resist the temptation of drawing at the
same time attention to what in my humble opinion seem important
issues ; and if I should have erred here and there, or have been
too sanguine in my expressions, I trust that others better qualified
than myself will investigate the subject and arrive at truer con-
clusions.

15

On the Injection of Specimens for Microscopical Exami-
nation.

By T. Charters White, M.R.C.S., &c, President.

(Read September 23rd, 1881.)

Dr. Carpenter, in treating of the injecting of the vessels of an
animal in order to show their arrangement in the various organs of
the body, says, " The art of making successful preparations of
this kind is one in which perfection can usually be attained only
by long practice, and by attention to a great number of minute
particulars ; and better specimens may be obtained therefore from
those who have made it a business to produce them, than are
likely to be prepared by amateurs for themselves." Now, while I
have every respect for the utterances generally of this distinguished
microscopist, I must take exception to this statement. I can
agree with him so far as he commends the beauty of the injections
made by our friends A. C. Cole and Topping, and of others who
devote themselves to this particular branch of microscopical pre-
paration, but beg distinctly to differ from him in the statement
that their labours are perfection, however admirable and beautiful
they may be as examples of successful work. Given an amateur,
who, by a little practice, can carry out this branch of work with
tolerable facility, and who does not disregard in an organ the
relationship of the other anatomical elements to its vascular
arrangements, then, I say, he will produce much more instructive
work than any exclusively professional mounter. We are accus-
tomed to see extremely beautiful and perfect injections exhibited
by these gentlemen, but none showing anything beyond the injected
vessels ; all the substructure which bears an intimate relation to
the vascular arrangement is entirely obliterated. This to a certain
extent may be due to the mounting medium employed in putting
them up, but does not alter the accusation I bring against them ;
and if a mounting medium could be devised and employed which
would show the adjacent structures at the same time as the vessels,
then, I say, the professional mounters would have reached the
pinnacle of perfection. Having no regular paper set down for
reading this evening, I have come forward at short notice to stop
the gap by one of those casual communications I have often under

16 T. CHARTERS WHITE ON THE INJECTION OF

similar circumstances offered to the Club, in the hope of making it
appear to the members not such a difficult task for any amongst
us to take up the subject of injection. Of course in injecting such
animals as Fish or Mollusca, more difficulty will at first be experi-
enced than with a small Mammal; but when once the student
attains tolerable facility in the use of the apparatus I will presently
describe, no great difficulty will present itself in injecting any mem-
ber of the Animal Kingdom.

I have placed under my microscope this evening an injected pre-
paration from the small intestine of the Guinea pig, not as an
example of perfect injection, but to show more clearly what I
mean by having a regard to the other elements of a structure
besides the vessels; and I will describe the modus operandi by
which I produced that preparation, and advise such of you
who may wish to follow up this branch of work to undertake it
with the full assurance that what I have but imperfectly performed
would, with more time and attention than I could give, be attended
by far more beautiful and instructive results. I do not wish to say
anything relative to opaque injections, because I have had no
personal experience in their production, but I shall confine myself
to the making of transparent injections with cold injection fluid,
although I believe that very beautiful preparations could be made
by the amateur with a little attention to temperature, by using a
warm injection of gelatine stained with carmine. With regard to
the instrument to be employed, I may say that although a syringe
is generally recommended to force in the injection, I found it
attended by so much unsteadiness and fatigue, followed often by
bursting of a vessel and consequent extravasation, that, however
deftly it may be employed by the professional injector, I gave it
up, and resorted to gentle and continuous pressure by a falling
column of the fluid injection. The injection I used was Beale's
Blue fluid, and as this requires a little care in its preparation,
directions for its proper combination may be fitly inserted at this
stage of the description. The formula I have found most satisfactory
is that given by Dr. Beale in " How to Work with the Microscope,"
at page 114, and is as follows : —

Glycerine, 2 ounces.

Wood Naphtha, 1& drachms.

Spirits of Wine, 1 ounce.

Ferrocyanide of Potassium, 12 grains.

Tincture of Sesquichloride of Iron, 1 drachm.

Water, 3 ounces.

SPECIMENS FOR MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION. , 17

The ferrocyanide is to be dissolved in one ounce of the glycerine,
and see that every particle is dissolved before proceeding to mix.
The tincture of iron may be added to another ounce of the glycerine,
and well stirred in ; now add these two solutions gradually to each
other, well shaking them in a bottle after each addition.

The iron must be added to the solution of ferrocyanide ; this is
strictly imperative. When thoroughly incorporated this mixture
should produce a dark blue fluid without any flocculi, and with no
sediment ; the naphtha may then be mixed with the spirit of wine
and the water, and gradually mixed with the blue fluid.

Having now made your injection, it may be placed in a wide-
mouth glass jar on a shelf, about five feet above your table; cut
two holes in the cork, which should fit the bottle accurately ; in
one hole place a small funnel, so that air may get to the interior
of the bottle, and should the injection threaten to become ex-
hausted before the completion of the process, some more can be
poured in; in the other hole insert a bent glass tube, one end of
which should reach in the inside of the bottle to the bottom ; the
other end may be left four inches long, and turned over in a good
arch ; on this end fit about six feet of india-rubber tubing of a
size to tightly embrace the glass tube; in the distal extremity of
this tubing fasten a small stop-cock. If now suction be made at
this, the injection will flow out of the bottle down the tube ; the
stop-cock can be turned, and thus the tube will be charged without
containing any air. Having now your injection so far ready, pre-
pare some nozzles of a suitable size to the vessel you intend to put
the injection in. The best can be made from a piece of the glass
tubing of the same calibre as that inserted in the bottle ; draw
some pieces of about two inches in length to capillary points in a
flame, and then break off the tips to correspond with the diameter
of the blood-vessel you select to operate on ; twist some fine wire
round the wide end of each of these canulas, and fix them with
some sealing-wax ; slip over the end of that you intend to employ
a short length of the same tubing that you have attached to one
end of your stop-cock. Now, having all these appliances at hand,
select the subject to be injected. This may be either a young
kitten, or a rat, or such-like small mammal ; it must be pro-
cured alive, and may be drowned or chloroformed to death ; and
directly after death, the sooner the better, the thoracic region may
be well laid open by cutting with a stout pair of scissors through

Journ. Q. M. 0., Series II., No. 1. c

18 T. CHARTERS WHITE ON THE INJECTION OP

the ribs on each side of the chest ; never mind the intercostal
vessels, they will not let out much injection, at any rate nothing to
signify.

Now, although life may be perfectly extinct, the muscular con-
tractility of the heart will exert itself, and the pulsation of that is
an indication of the elasticity of the vessels ; when once that has
ceased the injection will not flow so freely, as an impending rigor
mortis will have taken possession of the coats of the vessels, and
will be a serious hindrance to the access of the fluid into the capil-
laries ; lay open the pericardium, the bag which envelopes the
heart, and you will see the aorta springing from the left ventricle,
and arching over by the left side of the spine, descending to the
abdomen; cut off the apex of the heart, and insert the nozzle you
have prepared, first taking the precaution to fill it and the attached
tube with water; push it gently upward through the cavity of the
heart till you see it enter the aorta, when with a curved needle you
may pass a ligature under aorta and pipe, and tie them, securely
fastening the ends of your ligature to the wire studs twisted on
your glass tube ; that will prevent it slipping out again; see that it
is filled with fluid to the top, so that all air may be excluded, and
then make your connection with the stop-cock, first letting a few
drops of the injection flow through it ; when your tube is continuous
turn on the stop-cock, and you will soon see the various organs
become tinged with blue, the larger vessels first, and coursing
along these, it will branch off into innumerable fine channels, till
the whole capillary system is full ; and the excess coming out of
the right side of the heart will tell you your work is complete.

Your subject may remain to be cut up at your leisure, for the
glycerine in the injection will act as a preservative for some con-
siderable time. This, then, was the process adopted for the in-
jected preparation under my microscope this evening. You
will see that the blue fluid has run into the finest capillaries. But
it is said we learn more from our failures than from our successes ;
and therefore, as that preparation is far from what you can admire
from an aesthetic point of view, it will prove all the more instructive
if I point out an error I fell into. You will see that in a great
many places the blue injection has entirely faded out, and in others
that it is very pale. I believe this has arisen from the blue fluid
not being sufficiently acid to neutralise the alkalinity of the blood
remaining in the vessels ; and this seems substantiated by those
specimens where the preparation has been put into ammoniacal

SPECIMENS FOR MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION. 19

solution of carmine, which has entirely obliterated the blue, only
sufficient traces of it being left to tell of its departed beauty. The
next time I do this I shall put a little acid into my blue injection.
I once derived much good from Laving two wide-mouthed jars, one
containing a weak warm solution of salt and water, which I allowed
to flow through the capillary system in a similar manner to that I
have described as employed for the blue fluid prior to sending in
the injection, while my subject was manipulated under warm water;
this excluded every possibility of air getting into the circulation,
which is always to be avoided as most ruinous in its results.
These perhaps wearisome details comprise the whole of the process
I have always employed ; of course, others have tried the same
process, but I thought that it would be better to tell you how I
acted, as if no one else did the same thing, because I could make
my short paper more didactic ; and you will see by my poor
specimen that with greater care this process is capable of producing
some very beautiful and instructive results. You will, in the sub-
sequent examination of it, be able to determine how much is the
result of the mounting medium in which I have placed it ; for my
part, I believe it is entirely due to this that not only the villi but
the Lieberkuhnian follicles are most clearly shown with the
capillary vessels coursing all through and around them ; and I
must aver that had this specimen been mounted in balsam or
dammar, every detail would have been sacrificed. I consider
balsam to be the greatest bane Histology has to fight against.
The specimen I show to-night, after being saturated with the
glycerine from the injecting fluid, only required a little weak
glycerine and camphor water to put it up in ; and you will see the
consequence is a preservation of everything that would be other-
wise blotted out. I must apologise for very much in this very
imperfect paper. It is almost too short to deal exhaustively with
the subject of injecting ; much must of necessity be left unsaid
that might with advantage be spoken, but if any member desires
to take up this subject and work at it, I can only recommend him
to read up Beale's " How to work with the Microscope," and
Frey's " Microscope and Microscopical Technology," which works
deal very fully with the various injecting fluids that may be
employed; then if glycerine or glycerine jelly be employed as
mounting media, preparations will be exhibited which will prove
Dr. Carpenter's dictum applicable only to the past.

20

On the Structure and Division of the Vegetable Cell.

By W. H. Gilburt, F.R.M.S.

(Read Nov. 25, 1881.)
Plate I.

Schleiden, who was the founder of what is known as the " Cell
theory," defines the vegetable cell as "the elementary organ which
constitutes the sole essential form-element of all plants, and with-
out which a plant cannot exist," and as consisting, when fully
developed, of "a wall composed of cellulose, lined with a semi-fluid
nitrogenous coating." With him, therefore, a cell consisted of two
elements only, a closed vesicle, with a wall more or less firm, and
its semi-fluid parietal lining. In the year 1833, however, a third
element was added by Robert Brown, who first observed and
described the nucleus in certain Orchids ; and Schleiden subse-
quently pointed out its regular occurrence in at least the young
cells of all flowering plants. He also discovered in it a denser
body, which may, however, be sometimes absent, the Nucleolus.

Here then we have the idea of a cell as a threefold structure,
the cellulose wall, the semi-fluid contents, and the nucleus, to the
second of which Von Mohl gave the name of protoplasm.

This conception of the nature of the vegetable cell is the one
which is still most commonly held, and each of its component
parts is generally regarded by those who have only a general
knowledge of the subject as of equal value.

A little consideration will, however, show that such a view does
not fully represent the facts of the case, for if we regard the
cellulose wall as an essential part of a cell, we exclude some of the
most important protoplasmic structures which are developed dur-
ing the life of a plant. For instance, the contents of the young
embryo-sac of a flowering plant consists of a mass of protoplasm
with a nucleus. During the period of the growth of the ovule
this nucleus divides, giving rise to two daughter nuclei ; in these
secondary nuclei division again takes place. Thus we have four,
all embedded in the general protoplasm of the embryo-sac, two
being placed at each pole. Division again takes place in the

THE STRUCTURE AND DIVISION OF THE VEGETABLE CELL. 21

nuclei, thus forming a group of four at either end. Up till this time
the protoplasm has remained entire; but now one nucleus at either
end draws itself away from the remaining three, when, between
each of the latter, a division of the protoplasm takes place, and
the protoplasm surrounding each nucleus contracts, and assumes
an individuality which it did not before possess. One of these
little masses at the upper end is the egg-cell, the other two the
Synergidce, while the three at the lower end form the antipodal
cells. Now each and all of these are, and remain till fertilization,
naked, nucleated protoplasmic masses, and one at least of them the
most important cell that the plant can produce. Another example
may be mentioned in which not only is a cell, but many, without
walls, and forming a developed tissue, viz., the tissue in the
sporangium of Equisetum, from which the spore-mother cells are
produced. The same holds good of the spore-mother cells
themselves, and it is not till after the final division has taken place
that any cellulose is deposited on their surface. In fact, were the
definition of the triple structure rigidly applied, not only would a
few but most of the egg-cells of all plants be excluded, and also
many of the spores of both the higher and the lower Alga?.

In the year 1845 the comparative unimportance of the cell-wall
was pointed out by Nageli, and this conclusion was soon adopted
and emphasized by others, especially by Max Schultze, who
observing, as has just been shown, that many of the most im-
portant cells were destitute of a membrane, defined a cell as " a
little mass of protoplasm, inside of which lies a nucleus." This
definition did not, however, include all the vegetable proto-
plasmic structures either with or without a cell-wall, for many had
been observed in which no nucleus could be seen. Examples
of such are to be found in the Antherozoids of the Cryptogamia,
and at that time most, if not all the Fungi, were regarded as
being without a nucleus, in addition to many other Thallophytes.
For such elementary structures Hackel, in 1866, proposed the
name of Cytode. We have, then, this distinction : A cell is a
"little mass of protoplasm, inside which lies a nucleus ;" while
a cytode is " a little mass of protoplasm without a nucleus."
This appears to rather complicate matters, as instead of having
only one morphological element, we have, so far as terminology at
least is concerned, two, the cell and the cytode. The latter term
may, however, eventually have to be abandoned, at least with

22 W. H. GILBURT OX THE STRUCTURE AND

regard to the vegetable kingdom ; for Professor Schmitz has been
enabled to demonstrate the presence of nuclei in many Thallo-
phytes hitherto considered to be destitute of them, and even in
plants of so low a type as the Yeast plant; and he concludes "that
in all Thallophytes the cells invariably contain one or more
nuclei, organisms destitute of a nucleus being altogether un-
known."* If, therefore, these observations and conclusions should
be confirmed, as in all probability they will, we shall be brought
back to the one element of plant structure and life, the cell, as a
nucleated mass of protoplasm which may or may not be bounded
by a cell-wall.

Having thus given an extremely brief and, of necessity, very
incomplete sketch of the history of the Cell theory, we may now
turn to a consideration of its intimate structure as at present
known.

Taking the first, that very generally present, though non-
essential, element of cell-structure, the cellulose wall; although
there may be nothing either new or very recent to bring before
you, yet a brief review of the known facts and present theories
concerning it may not be altogether out of place. You will of
course know that cellulose is, chemically, a compound isomeric w ith
starch, sugar, and inulin,its formula being C 6 H 10 5 . Under the
microscope it presents itself normally in young cells as an ex-
tremely thin, transparent, homogeneous pellicle. As it becomes
older, it increases in thickness, but frequently even in what are
commonly spoken of as thin -walled cells, the thickening takes
place unequally ; and isolated, or groups of spots remain as thin, or
nearly so, as when the wall was first formed, while in still older
cells these thin places are sometimes dissolved, and a clear aperture
remains between the two adjoining cells.

Under the highest powers of the microscope nothing which in
any true sense can be called structure is to be seen, yet, in common
with all matter, we must look upon it as being molecular in com-
position, the molecules being solid, isolated particles, between
which water penetrates. Now in order to readily understand how,
according to present views of growth, the cell-wall increases in
superficial area, it is desirable that a clear mental picture should
be formed of this molecular structure. True, we cannot give even
a rough guess at the extreme minuteness of these component

* " Journal Royal Microscopical Society, " 1880, p. 438.

DIVISION OF THE VEGETABLE CELL. 23

molecules, and therefore cannot possibly estimate how many layers
would be required to make up the thickness of even the thinnest
cell-wall. Still this is by no means necessary. In order there-
fore, to render the idea as simple as possible, let us imagine a wall
composed of say three layers, and the molecules, if you will, as
large as peas. Now imagine that these peas are floating in a
viscid fluid medium somewhat denser than themselves, but each
pea kept apart from, and in its relative position with regard to its
neighbours, by reason of an attractive force which is inherent in
itself ; so that when uninfluenced by external conditions, this
structure and all its individual parts are relatively in a state of
stable equilibrium. Now in imagination reduce the size of the
molecules as much as you like, but, preserving the general idea of
this extremely rough illustration, you have a conception of the
present view as to the structure of the cell-wall. That such a
theory represents the facts of the case is highly probable, seeing
that it, far better than any other which has yet been suggested,
enables us to account for the increase of the area of the cell-wall
during the process of growth. It should be always borne in
mind that nothing like life can be ascribed to the cell- wall, that
the substance of which it is composed has no power of increasing
its own bulk, and that any extension which takes place in it is due
solely to the protoplasm which it encloses. Growth of the cell-
wall takes place by intussusception, i.e., the intercalation or inser-
tion of new molecules between those already existing. Remem-
bering that between the existing molecules we have a layer of
water which envelops them on every side, it will be seen that if
by any means, we can obtain a force or pressure internally which
shall, so to speak, stretch the existing cell-wall, and therefore
separate the component molecules farther from each other, there is
nothing to hinder the insertion of new molecules amongst them.
And such a force exists, and results from the eagerness with
which young and growing cells imbibe water, thereby producing a
condition of great turgidity, and keeping the thin cell-wall in a
state of tension.

The question naturally arises as to how these new molecules
which are required to build up the cell-wall are produced. Are
the elements of the cellulose held in solution in the water of
organization, as it is called, which occupies the interspaces between
the existing molecules, waiting, as it were, for room to combine ?

24 W. H. GILBURT OX THE STRUCTURE AND

or are the molecules themselves prepared on the surface of the
protoplasm and afterwards inserted ? In all probability the former
is the case, as otherwise the difficulty, which is now very great, in
accounting for some facts, would be greatly increased ; for instance,
the beautiful sculpturing which we find on the external surface of
many pollen grains is produced by forces acting from within, and is
due to growth by intussusception ; and while we cannot under-
stand how it is that these patterns should be always present and so
constant in design by any theory of growth, yet to suppose that
the molecules are prepared on the surface of the protoplasm and
then forced through would certainly not help, but rather otherwise.
It should not be supposed, however, that the presence of cellulose is
necessary to its further production in cells which are invariably
clothed with it. Strasburger has shown that the protoplasm of
the sac of Vaucheria may be made to contract and draw itself away
from the wall, when it will immediately commence to produce a new
one, free from the original ; and this experiment he repeated
successfully with the same part of the same sac. Another and
perhaps better example of the production of cellulose by the proto-
plasm apart from any already existing is seen in the formation of
the new wall in a dividing cell, the whole division plate being laid
down at once before any separation can be perceived in the proto-
plasm. We may therefore say, that while chemical affinity of
some kind plays a part in the production of these molecules, it is
and must be the result of physiological action.

We come now to a consideration of the more important consti-
tuents of the cell, those parts in which life inheres, and upon the
presence and activity of which all growth and increase depends—
the protoplasm and the nucleus. We are all, doubtless, more or
less familiar with the appearance presented by a growing cell under
the microscope — say in a section not far removed from the apex of
a stem, or in a fragment of a very young leaf. The thin cell-wall
is apparent, and we find it either wholly or in part occupied with
a transparent semi-fluid substance, in which are imbedded a large
number of minute granules, which appear dark or bright according
as we look at them in focus or otherwise. In the midst of this
substance we observe a globose or ovoid body more highly refrac-
tive and much denser than the general contents of the cell.

Protoplasm is sometimes spoken of as a fluid, but under no con-
ditions can such a term be strictly applied to it. A fluid always

DIVISION OF THE VEGETABLE CELL. 25

takes the form of the vessel in which it is contained, bat a living
protoplasmic mass will never do this. An Amoeba in water, even
those forms which appear to have the largest proportion of the
medium in which they live entering into their composition, does not
flow over the surface of the slip upon which you place it ; it pro-
trudes a part of its substance, but it also retracts it ; it would just
as soon travel up an inclined plane or vertical surface as on a hori-
zontal one. Its substance is clearly under its own control, using
the term in its most limited sense. The protoplasm of the vegetable
cell is essentially similar in this respect to an Amoeba. There is
the same general appearance in the one as in the other.

The outer portion of an Amoeba is, as you know, clear and hya-
line, all granules are absent ; and, moreover, it is evidently denser
than the inner portion. And this description holds as well for our
plant cell as for the Amoeba, only that in the former the clear outer
portion is far thinner, and therefore less easily seen than in the
latter. Still it is there, and can be without difficulty demonstrated
by application of a dilute acid or alcohol, which by causing the cell
contents to shrink, at once brings it into view. It was the clear
hyaline layer which the earlier observers took for a skin, and to
which they gave the name of Primordial utricle ; but it has now
long been known that it is nothing more than a denser portion of
the general protoplasm ; there is no line dividing it from the softer
parts, the density simply increasing gradually from without, in-
wards. In order to distinguish one from the other, the names of
Ectoplasm and Endoplasm have been used, but it should be clearly
understood that it is impossible to tell where -the one leaves off and
the other commences.

Sachs says, " At the base of all protoplasmic structure there
probably lies a substance which is colourless, homogeneous, and not
visibly granular ; to it alone the name of Protoplasm ought per-
haps to be applied, or at all events it ought to be distinguished as
the foundation of protoplasm." " The fine granules which are so
often mingled with it are probably finely divided assimilated food
materials, which undergo a further chemical metamorphosis into
protoplasm."

Now the question of the homogeniety or otherwise of living proto-
plasm is one which has been claiming and receiving great attention
at the hands of some of our best biologists during the last few
years. Dr. Be ale, for whom we must all hold great respect, has, as

26 W. H. G1LBURT ON THE STRUCTURE AND

we know, stated most emphatically that all living matter is struc-
tureless. He says, to quote one of his most recent utterances,
" Living matter has no definite structure whatever ; in fact,
its particles, and very probably their constituent atoms, are in a
state of very active movement, which renders structure and fixity of
arrangement impossible, this active movement being an essen-
tial condition of the living state, which latter ceases when the
movement comes to a standstill. According to this view, the idea
of structure as belonging to living matter is inconceivable." Now,
given the molecular structure of protoplasm, which Dr. Beale ap-
pears to agree with, the active movement would also be included.
According to the present doctrine of the constitution of matter, its
primary element is an atom. That the atoms of the various ele-
mentary substances combining in certain definite proportions form
molecules, which possess certain definite qualities ; that the
molecules as such, and the atoms composing them, are alike in
active motion ; that the chief difference between the three states of
matter, solid, liquid, and gaseous, consists in the amount of move-
ment of which the molecules are capable ; and it would appear that
only in the two latter are the conditions such that movements of
sufficient freedom or amplitude could take place so as to preclude
the possibility of structure.

It has been shown already that protoplasm is not a fluid, and
that its density is dependent upon the quantity of water present,
the proportion of which varies within wide limits, from a con-
dition in which it appears to preponderate to one in which it is
nearly absent, and the protoplasm stiff and even brittle, as, for
example, in the embryo of some seeds. Here we have a condition
in which the protoplasm is practically a solid, and yet it is not
only alive, but is capable of preserving its dormant vitality, often
for a long period, and only requires suitable conditions as to heat
and moisture, for physiological action to be resumed and growth to
take place.

From this it would appear that while water is undoubtedly neces-
sary for the purposes of nutrition and the other operations for con-
tinued life and development, we may fairly assume that at least it
is not necessary for the existence of protoplasm that water should
be present in such excess as we sometimes see it ; and seeing that
even in vegetable ceils, where growth and development are most
active, the protoplasm certainly is not a fluid either in appearance

DIVISION OF THE VEGETABLE CELL. 27

or consistence, we may conclude that in instances such as some of
the Amoebae, where they appear little denser than the medium in
which they live, we have not protoplasm only, but protoplasm
plus water ; and such being the case, there would seem to be no
reason for concluding, from its physical constitution, that the idea
of its possessing structure is inconceivable.

When, however, we pass from such considerations as these and
look at the infinite variety of life forms, both animal and vegetable,
with all their varied functions and capacities, and remember that
they each and all had their origin in a microscopic mass of this
protoplasm ; the thought that for them all this substance from which
they arise is absolutely alike is to say the least difficult of belief.
Dr. Allman, in his presidential address before the British Associa-
tion in 1879, deals with this question in a most forcible manner
when he says, " To suppose, however, that all protoplasm is iden-
tical where no difference is cognisable by any means at our disposal
would be an error. Of two particles of protoplasm, between which
we may defy all the powers of the microscope, all the resources of
the laboratory, to detect a difference, one can develop only into a
jelly fish, the other only to a man, and one conclusion alone is here
possible : that deep within them must be a fundamental difference,
which thus determines their inevitable destiny, but of which we
know nothing, and can assert nothing, beyond the statement that
it must depend on their hidden molecular constitution." " In the
molecular condition of protoplasm there is probably as much com-
plexity as in the disposition of organs of the most highly differen-
tiated organisms ; and between the two masses of protoplasm in-
distinguishable from one another, there may be as much molecular
difference as there is between the form and arrangement of organs
in the most widely sepraated animals or plants." Certainly this
view of the question could not possibly be presented in a better
form, but it may perhaps help us to realize how extremely probable
this is if we remember into what diversified products the same ele-
mentary substances combining in the same proportions give rise.
We have already seen that cellulose, sugar, starch, and inulin, are
isomeric with each other, that is, that the elements and combining
proportions are the same in each case, although they possess such
very different physical characteristics. A far more remarkable
exaurple is, that in twenty-seven volatile oils, including those of
chamomile, hops, turpentine, clove, lemon, valerian ; the carbon

28 W. H. GILBURT ON THE STRUCTURE AND

and hydrogen are united in the same proportion, viz., ten to sixteen
atoms."* Now if in nature's laboratory, from the same materials
in exactly the same proportions, substances so different, and cause
ing in us such varied sensations, are produced, by simply altering
the arrangement of the constituent atoms, can we doubt the pos-
sibility that an almost endless diversity may exist in the arrange-
ment of the elementary atoms of which protoplasm is built up ?

But it would seem that there are other reasons why we should
look for structure in protoplasm, not only molecular, but of a
coarser sort. One of the chief characteristics of all protoplasm is
its contractility ; not merely a shrinkage or apparent decrease in
size, which sometimes occurs through loss of water, but that kind
of contractility which results in motion — motion which may be
regular like that of the muscles, or irregular like that of the
Amoebae. That this property exists in vegetable protoplasm as well
as in animal is well known. Examples of it are met with in the
phenomenon of cyclosis as seen in many hairs, in Vallisneria, &c,
but many which approach nearer in appearance to what we call
Amoeboid are not difficult to find. For instance, if the sac of Vau-
cheria be ruptured, and the protoplasm allowed to escape into
water, amoeboid movement is set up in it, and may continue for
some time. In the plasmodium of the Myxomycetes the same
phenomena are also shown in a remarkable manner, and in the cells
of the higher plants, when the protoplasm forms a somewhat thick
and dense parietal layer upon the wall, a wave may sometimes be
seen to travel along it, not a transposition of the protoplasm, but
simply a contraction and expansion which passes from one end of
the cell to the other. Now, as we watch these movements, we find
that it requires an effort of the mind to resist the impression that
behind them all there is volition of some kind, and also that there
must be some machinery by which these movements are effected.
As to the idea of ivill, that cannot for one moment be retained ;
but the presence or otherwise of structural elements, by the em-
ployment of which these contractions are brought about, is a ques-
tion which may well be at least considered.

There is one feature about these movements which is very re-
markable, and which must have struck every observer, viz., the in-
definiteness of the course of contraction, and the readiness with
which it may be reversed or varied. If the protoplasm is abso-

* " Drysdale's Protoplasmic Theory of Life," p. 179.

DIVISION OF THE VEGETABLE CELL. 29

lutely homogeneous, and therefore structureless, it is most difficult
to conceive how this could be effected, while if the presence of con-
tractile filaments could be demonstrated, the difficulty would be at
once removed. Whether such filaments will ultimately be dis-
covered in all protoplasmic bodies it is impossible to say, but we
have evidence that in some cells such filaments do exist, and are
contractile, and that in others a filamentous structure has been ob-
served, although its function, if any, has yet to be determined.

Dr. Allman, in the address from which a quotation has already
been given, pointed out and illustrated by numerous instances the
fact of the close agreement that exists between the protoplasm of
animal and vegetable cells, both in appearance and behaviour,
under the influence of reagents. We may therefore refer to obser-
vations which have recently been made in animal cells, but at the
same time it is interesting to note that this agreement between the
two kingdoms is still maintained, and that we are not left to argue
from analogy ; that because certain appearances and phenomena
have been observed in one, therefore they exist in the other.

In 1879 Professor Julius Arnold described the appearance and
structure of a large number of animal cells, both normal and
pathological, and found that in both classes "cells possess a com-
plicated structure ; the two constituents as ordinarily distinguished
by us, the cell-body and the cell-nucleus, consist of a ground sub-
stance as well as of granules, sets of granules, and filaments ; these
latter may become very complicated in the more highly developed
forms of cells," * and has no doubt that whatever future results
may lead to, they will demonstrate that the structure of the cell is
not so simple as it is ordinarily considered to be. In the same year
Professor Fromman, treating of the vegetable cell, stated that he
had detected in growing cells a thread-like, reticulated structure,
both in the protoplasm and nuclei and in the chlorophyll bodies,
and that these not only serve to connect the nuclei and chlorophyll
bodies with one another, but that they pass from one cell to the
next through minute crevices in the cell-wall, f With regard to
these observations I would say, that so far as protoplasm and
nuclei are concerned, I have not the slightest doubt that Professor
Fromman is correct, as the structure described in the nuclei is most
satisfactorily established, and the thread-like reticulation he refers

* " Journal Royal Micro. Soc," vol. iii., p. 50.
t " J. R. M. S.," vol. iii., p. 475.

SO W. H. GILBURT ON THE STRUCTURE AND

to in the protoplasm I have also seen. As to the chlorophyll
bodies, he has in all probability noticed the appearance described
by Pringsheim which they present after the removal of the hypo-
chlorin, and which resembles in a striking degree that of one of
the simpler and coarser spherical Polycistins.

In 1880 Herr Schleischer published an account of investigations
he had made on living cartilage cells. He found that the proto-
plasm was formed of two elements, one almost homogeneous and
liquid, the other solid and contractile. He also describes certain
bodily movements of the nucleus, and says that they are due to
the solid elements of the protoplasm, and to those alone.*

In the same year we have Professor Schmitz bringing forward
corroborative evidence concerning the observations of Fromrnan's
already referred to. According to him, " the protoplasmic body
consists of a reticulated framework of extremely fine fibrillar, vary-
ing much in their development ;" u the intermediate substance be-
tween the meshes of the fibrillar framework is a homogeneous fluid ;"
and i: the framework of fine fibrillar does not consist of rigid im-
motile fibres, but of a living motile protoplasm, which is continu-
ally undergoing change of form." f

MM. Treub and Mellink also, in treating of the embryo-sac of
Lilium bulbiferum, describe a " ray-like disposition " of the proto-
plasm " around the nuclei, it being specially marked when the
latter were in process of division." £ This also I am pleased to
have seen, though not in the same species, and I strongly suspect
that it has direct connection with the structure of the protoplasm.

Such is the evidence for the presence of structure in this living,
growing substance, and taken together as referring both to
animal and vegetable cells, I cannot help thinking that, while it
does not prove its general existence, it is more than sufficient to
cause us to suspend our judgment in the matter.

We pass on now to a consideration of the Nucleus, which
hitherto we have only incidentally referred to. That this body is
of great importance was, as we have seen, very early recognised,
and the value of the cell was made to depend upon its presence or
otherwise. As to the origin of the nuclei, and the formation of
cells around them, various theories have been held, one of

*"J. R. M. S.," vol. iii., p. 408.

t " J. R. M. S.," series 2, vol. i., p. 475.

\ " J. R. M. S.," series 2, vol. i., p. 621,

DIVISION OF THE VEGETABLE CELL. 31

which was; that there is, in the first instance, a structureless sub-
stance present, sometimes fluid, sometimes more or less gelatinous.
This substance possessed within itself power to occasion the pro-
duction of cells. When this took place, the nucleus usually ap-
peared first, and then the cell was formed around it. The sub-
stance in which the cells arose was named cell-germinating mate-
rial, or cytoblastema.

This process was known as free cell-formation, and until quite
recently was believed to be the one by which the first endosperm
cells were produced within the embryo-sac of flowering plants.
Such, however, Strasburger — who has for ever linked his name
with the life-history of cells — has proved not to be tlie case, and
that they, in common with all others, are derived from tlie division
of pre-existing nuclei and cells.

In but few, if any, departments of biological science, has greater
advance in knowledge been made during the last five years than
has taken place with regard to the structure and division of nuclei.
Essentially protoplasmic in its nature, it was believed to be devoid
of structure, but denser and more highly refractive than the proto-
plasm in which it is enclosed. But during the last few years, owing
to the labours of many observers, but notably Strasburger and
Flemming in Germany, and Klein in England, the views pre-
viously held have been completely revolutionized.

Nuclei are now known to consist of two elements, differing
from each other chemically as well as in appearance. The one
is dense, the other is semi-fluid, the denser one being also more
highly refractive. The first names proposed for them were nuclear-
fluid and nuclear- substance respectively; but seeing that the one
was in reality never a true fluid, another and more satisfactory
nomenclature has been proposed. The best results — so far as the
observation of the structure and behaviour of nuclei in vegetable
cells are concerned — are obtained in tissues whose protoplasm has
been fixed by means of absolute alcohol, and the sections stained
with Hematoxylin ; and in preparations so treated it is found that
the nuclei are most beautifully stained, while all else either
remains uncoloured or is tinted to a very small extent. And
further it is found that in nuclei either preparing for or in
process of division, only one of the elements is coloured, the
other remaining colourless, the denser substance taking the stain
intensely, the other refusing it. Here we have at least an indica-

32 W. H. GILBURT ON THE STRUCTURE AND

tion of a clear chemical difference, whatever it may be. Taking
advantage of this fact, and without any further reference save for
purposes of distinction, it is proposed to call the denser element
which eagerly takes the colour " Chromatin," and the one which
refuses it " Aehromatin."

The arrangement of the two nuclear elements is not always alike.
Sometimes the chromatin presents the appearance of a distinct re-
ticulation or network interpenetrating the whole of the nucleus ; at
others it is seen as distinct rods or filaments, while in nuclei which
are at rest it sometimes seems as though it was diffused throughout
the general substance. Another feature also is sometimes well
shown, especially in those nuclei where the chromatin is seen as
filaments, and that is the presence of a nuclear-membrane of chro-
matin, the rods and filaments running through the enclosed sub-
stance, and amongst them the spherical bodies, known as nucleoli,
lying free. With regard to the latter, some doubt at present exists,
both as to their nature and function ; they take the colour, but not
so intensely as the chromatin. Taking now a section, say through
the integuments of a young ovule, prepared and stained as already
described, and examining it with a power of between five and six
hundred, we shall see most of the nuclei presenting an appear-
ance somewhat like Fig. 1. This would at first perhaps be some-
what misleading, and you might decide at once that the darker
parts were granules deeply coloured ; but by careful and slow focus-
sing up and down you will soon make out their true character.
Were they granules, you would lose some, and others would come
into view, but you will find that by watching one you do not lose it,
but follow its course, which is generally more or less oblique, prov-
ing that it is a rod or filament, and what you first saw as dots or
granules were really these filaments of chromatin in optical section.
These points are best made out in the large primary nucleus of
some embryo-sacs — for instance, of the tulip, from the integu-
ments of the ovule of which plant these figures are taken.
When a nucleus is about to divide, there is first growth, increase
in size, and alteration of form ; whereas it was, whilst at rest, more
or less spherical, it now becomes ovoid, its chromatin filaments be-
come much coarser, and the appearance is as Fig. 2. The filaments
then straighten themselves out and arrange themselves more or less
parallel to each other, as Fig. 3, and now contracting towards the
centre of the cell as in Fig. 4, they eventually form a plate as in
Fig. 5. This plate is the final phase of the first stage, and all that

DIVISION OF THE VEGETABLE CELL. 33

lias gone before has been progressive towards it. There is one
feature which can now be seen, namely, the fibrillar arrangement
of the clear element of the nucleus on either side of the chromatin
plate, and through the remaining stage until the final division of
the cell this appearance is presented in a most striking manner.
We now come to the actual division of the nucleus. The plate
which we have seen formed splits into two, not suddenly ; com-
mencing at the circumference, it gradually proceeds until we have
two plates instead of one, lying near to and facing each other. This
stage I have seen best in the spore mother-cells of Equisetum, and
it is shown in Fig. 12. In the Tulip, as soon as the division of the
plate has taken place, the filaments are again seen ranging them-
selves longitudinally and parallel, but now they are found to be in
two sets, Fig. 6, and they recede from each other, as in Fig. 7, till
they reach the extremity of the achromatin, when the ends of the
filaments farthest from the centre unite, and we have the dyaster
stage as shown in Fig. 8. During this time the striated appear-
ance of the colourless portion of the nucleus, the Achromatin, be-
comes more marked, and henceforth claims greater attention. It
is now seen as a continuous band uniting the two chromatin groups.
The chromatin filaments now close up, the achromatin appearing
to increase and become more defined. The two daughter nuclei
now approach each other somewhat, the achromatin, bulging out
between them, and at the same time a row of dot-like thickenings
appear midway between the chromatin masses as shown in Fig. 9.
These thickenings denote the position to be occupied by the divi-
sion plate of the cell. Still this closing up of the chromatin con-
tinues, the bulging out of the colourless element also increases, till
a condition shown in Fig. 10 is reached, this being taken just at the
time when the cellulose plate has been deposited midway between
the nuclei. These now recede from each other, take up a more or
less central position in the daughter cells, and go into the resting
condition.

Such is the complicated but most interesting process of cell divi-
sion. How different it is from what used to be held ! Instead of a
simple structureless substance becoming constricted in the centre
and finally divided, we have here a structure and character the
meaning of which is as yet but little known, and the process of
division is as complex as could well be imagined. Starting
from the resting stage, it (the parent nucleus) passes through cer-

Journ. Q. M. 0., Series II., No. 1, d

34 THE STRUCTURE AND DIVISTON OF THE VEGETABLE CELL.

tain phases till the equatorial plate is reached ; then passing
again through the same phases, but in reversed order, they
(the daughter nuclei) again reach the resting condition.

The figures assumed by the nuclei during division vary some-
what amongst the different classes of plants, but still in all essen-
tial particulars they agree. In Figs. 11 to 14 are shown the ap-
pearances presented by the two elements in the nucleus of the
spore mother-cell of Equisetum limosum. You will notice how
much more regular in outline and arrangement they are. It is
needless to describe the process here in full, as it agrees with
that given in the Tulip. I would, however, point out that in Fig.
13 you have two nuclei in process of division, one further advanced
than the other, but in one the equatorial plate is shown in plan, and
appears almost solid. The spore mother-cell is without a wall till
the stage in Fig. 14 is reached, when cellulose is deposited around
the cells, which have now become the spores.

That these structures and processes are of great interest and
importance we must all admit, but at present it is impossible to
say which of the two nuclear elements is to be looked upon as
the efficient cause of the phenomena we have been reviewing. Is
it the achromatin, as suggested by Flemming, which acts upon
and causes the chromatin to pass through the varied figures in
which we ha^e seen it? or is it in the chromatin that the power
resides, and by which it operates, imparting what may be called
polarity to the colourless element, and so arranging it as has been
described, and bringing about the final division by its agency ?
For an answer to these questions we must wait for more light.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I.

Figs. 1-10. — From integument of ovnleof Tulipa Gesneriana. Figs. 11-14.

— Spore mother-cells of Equisetum limosum, all X 570.
Fig. 1. — Nucleus in resting condition.
Figs. 2-10. — Successive stages in division of Nuclei.
Fig. 5. — Nuclear spindle with equatorial plate.
Fig. 8. — Dyaster stage.
Figs. 9, 10. — Appearance of Nuclear plate, showing position of future

cell plate.
Fig. 11. — Nuclear spindle with equatorial plate.
Fig. 12. — Division of equatorial plate.
Fig. 13. — Equatorial plate seen in plan in one daughter cell, and further

separation in the other.
Fig. 14. — Final stage, just prior to separation of spores.

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35

On an Improved Compressorium.
By J. D. Hardy.

(Communicated December 23rd, 1881.)

My object in constructing the Compressor which I have shown in
the accompanying drawing is to remedy, to some extent, the defects
which I have found to exist in compressors as at present con-
structed. These defects are mainly the difficulty of regulating the
pressure with exactness, the imperfect parallelism, and a deficiency
of freedom of action, which causes great risk of losing or damag-
ing the object under observation.

In the annexed figures I have shown two views of my improved
compressor, Fig. 1 being a perspective view, and Fig. 2 an edge
view.

In these figures A is a brass plate, three inches long by an inch
and a half wide, or thereabouts, in the centre of which a round
hole is formed. At one end of the brass plate A is secured a bent
spring B, of thin brass, and to this bent spring is hinged a second
brass plate C, also formed with a round hole in its centre, and
bevelled on the upper surface to admit of the full action of high
powers. This second plate C will, when turned down, as shown in
Fig. 2, overlie the plate A, and the two holes will correspond with
each other. At the opposite end of the plate A to that to which
the spring B is attached, a button D is mounted so as to be capable
of turning freely, and also of rocking on the short stud pin d.
The outer extremity of this button is bored and tapped to receive
a small thumb screw, e. A similar thumb screw, f, is also fitted to
the plate C, near its hinge joint.

A thin cover-glass is cemented to the upper side of the plate A,
so as to cover the central hole, and the under side of the plate C is
similarly provided. I have shown in the figures these cover-
glasses as square for the sake of clearness, but it is obvious that
they may be either square or round, as may be found most con-
venient.

36

J. D. HARDY ON AN IMPROVED COMPRESSORIUM.

The mode of using this compressor is as follows : — The plate C
is first turned down into place, and the distance that it is desired the
glasses should be apart roughly adjusted by means of the screw /.
The plate C may then be turned back, and the object placed on
the lower glass ; the covering plate is then again turned down and
secured by turning the button D over it. By means of the two
screws d and/, the pressure can now be regulated with the greatest
nicety without any risk of damaging or losing the object under
examination.

This arrangement admits of the glasses being easily cleaned and
readily replaced by new ones when broken.

?>7

'}

PROCEEDINGS.

August 26th, 1881. — Ordinary Meeting.

T. Charters White, Esq., M.R.C.S., &c, President, in the.

Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
Mr. M. D. Northey and Mr. Eugene L. Roy were balloted for and duly
elected members of the Club.

The following additions to the Library were announced, and the thanks
of the Club voted to the donors : —

" Proceedings of the Royal Society " ... from the Society.

" Journal of the Royal Microscopical

Society"
" Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich )
Naturalists' Society " ... , ... )

,, „ Geologists' Association " ,, „

„ >} Hertfordshire Natural")

History Society" ... ... J

„ ., Birmingham Natural")

History Society " ... ... )

„ „ Epping Forest Natu-

ralists' Field Club "

ii ,, Eastbourne Natural")

History Society " ... ... J

" On the Diatoms of the London Clay ") ,, r. Tr ., L
_, . . J f Mr. F. Kitton.

(Reprint) ... ... ... J

" Balfour's Comparative Embryology," Vol. II. The President.

" Science Gossip " ... ... ... from the Publisher.

" Northern Microscopist " ... ... ... „ „

"The Microscope in Medicine " (American) ... ,, „

" American Naturalist " ... ... ... in exchange.

,, Monthly Microscopical Journal " ,,

" Annals of Natural History " ... ... pm'chased.

" Micrographic Dictionary," Part II. ... „

" Schmidt's Atlas of the Diatornacese" ... ,,

Mr. Heinrich Hensoldt (introduced by Mr. G. D. Brown) read a paper

" On Fluid Cavities in Meteorites."

The President remarked on the value of the paper, and invited discussion.

He inquired if the fluid had been examined with the spectroscope ?

Mr. G. D. Brown said that having had the pleasure of introducing Mr.

Hensoldt to the meeting, he wished to say that, without criticising the

}

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» >>

tt }>

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38

paper they had jnst heard read, he considei'ed it might be of considerable
interest, and not altogether wide of their more special studies.

Mr. J. D. Hardy inquired if the sections had been examined with the polari-
scope, and whether the appearances might not be caused by " Brownian "
movements ?

Mr. T. H. Buffham thought that no proof had been given that the cavi-
ties contained carbonic acid. He doubted that any quantity of carbonic
acid could be retained in such sections under the pressure required to
liquify it. He thought that the contents might be water formed by a com-
bination of hydrogen with the oxygen of the iron. The conclusion that the
meteorite was part of a larger one that had been exploded was also against
the general opinion regarding the formation of the asteroids and similar
bodies. It had been proved that these could not have been produced by such
an explosion, as the asteroids had no common node. In the neighbourhood
of the sun there were millions of such bodies, space being filled with
bodies of all sizes. No known power could separate the smaller fragments
of an asteroid or meteorite from the larger. Meteorites were considered
to be aggregations of smaller bodies, not the result of explosions.

Dr. Matthews asked if the cause of the high temperature of the meteor-
ite was known ?

Mr. Hensoldt, in reply, said that the movements of the bubbles were
clearly not " Brownian," but were caused by variations in the atmospheric
pressure. The same effect could be shown with a delicate spirit-level. The
rapidity of the motion was in proportion to the smallness of the cavities.
He had not been able to examine the fluid with the spectroscope, but had
come to the conclusion from its behaviour that it must be either carbonic
acid or some hitherto unknown substance of the same character. Cavities
in basic lava had been found to contain carbonic acid. His investigations
tended to support the explosion theory. The heating of meteorites was most
probably caused by friction in their rapid passage through our atmosphere.

The President, in closing the discussion, referred to a paper " On the
Identification of Liquid Carbonic Acid in Mineral Cavities," by W. N.
Hartley, F.C.S., read before the Boyal Microscopical Society (Monthly
Mic. Journ., vol. xv., 1876, p. 170), and placed the volume on the table
for reference. He called upon them to pass a cordial vote of thanks to Mr,
Hensoldt for his elaborate and interesting paper.

A vote of thanks was carried unanimously.

The President announced the engagements for the ensuing month, and
the Proceedings terminated with the usual Conversazione, at which the
following objects were exhibited : —

Section of Coprolite ... ... ... Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Floscularia ... ... ... ... Mr. W. G. Cocka.

Head of Carpenter Bee (Odynerus parietum),
showing organs of mouth in natural form
and colour ... ... ... ... Mr. F. Enock.

Fluid enclosures in a section of a Meteorite (in

illustration of his paper) ... ... Mr. H. Hensoldt,

Attendance — Members, 44 ; Visitors, 2,

39

September 9th, 1881. — Conversational Meeting.

The following objects were exhibited : —

Fungus on Mallow leaf ... ... Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Floscularia ... ... ... ... Mr. W. Goodwin.

Amceba princeps, of very large size... ... Mr. J. E. Ingpen.

Calcarina hispida ... ... ... Mr. B. W. Priest.

Dental Exostosis, stained ; transverse and~) ,»• j „ rn ^
longitudinal sections ... ... j

Section of Meteorite (?) with cavities con- j Mf H< j Waddington .
taining carbonic dioxide (?) ... )

Mr. W. A. Bevington sent from Rudesheim some specimens of vine
leaves covered with the fungus " Kreusel krankheit."

Attendance — Members, 45 j Visitors, 4.

September 23rd, 1881. — Ordinary Meeting.
T. Charters White, Esq., M.E.C.S., &c, President, in the Chair.

The Proceedings commenced at 8.25 p.m.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
The following gentlemen were balloted for and duly elected members of
the Club :— Mr. Heinrich Hensoldt, Mr. Gerald Sturt, Mr. E. S. Whelpton.
The following donations to the Club were announced : —

'< Report of the Croydon Natural History j from tfae gooietyi
Society ... ... ... )

,, „ Chester Natural History"^

Society" ... ... ... )

" Science Gossip " ... ... ... ,, the Publisher.

" The Northern Microscopist " ... „ ,,

" The American Naturalist " ... inexchange.

„ „ Monthly Microscopical ")

Journal ... ... ... )

„ ,-, Journal of Microscopy " „ ,,

" Annals of Natural History " ... ... purchased.

"Grevillea" ... ... ... ... ,,

" Synopsis of Leidy's Rhizopods ... ... ,,

" Histological Demonstrations " ... ... „

The thanks of the Club were voted to the donors.

Mr. Ingpen exhibited and described Mr. Ay 1 ward's concentric turn-
table.

The President thought the turntable was very ingenious as regarded its
mode of centring, but he was afraid it would not enable any one to put a
fresh coat of varnish on an old slide which had originally been mounted
out of the centre — this was a most desirable qualification.

Mr. Ingpen did not think there was any special contrivance provided for

40

uncentring, but a pair of springs were supplied which, on being fixed, con-
verted it into an ordinary turntable.

Mr. F. Enock described a new device for protecting objects mounted
in fluid from damage by external pressure. It consisted of a small
metallic ring of angular section (f~) which fitted closely round the outside
of the cell, and at the same time slightly overlapped the cover-glass,
entirely closing in the rim. When made good with cement it gave great
additional protection, and prevented the unsettling of the varnish and the
escape of the fluid medium, which so frequently occurred as a result of
careless handling. The metal rings would not greatly add to the cost of
mounting, as they could be obtained for about 3d. per dozen at most of the
opticians.

Mr. Ingpen inquired if Mr. Enock particularly preferred gold-size as a
cement for fluid cells ?

Mr. Enock said that sometimes he used dammar, and at others the ordi-
nary asphalt varnish, but thought that on the whole gold-size was best.

The President thought the idea was a good one, but whilst he agreed with
what had been saii as to the difficulties of this kind of mounting, he thought
they should remember that glycerine would expand, and that unless they
used a cement which was to some extent elastic, they would be apt to get
the cells cracked.

The thanks of the meeting were returned to Mr. Enock for his communi-
cation.

Mr. W. H. King exhibited a specimen of the inflorescence of Monstera
deliciosa, and described by means of blackboard drawings the growth and
development of the plant. The plant from which the specimen had been
cut was growing in England, and the fruit, which was said to be very
luscious, ripened during the year following the appearance of the flower.

Mr. J. G. Waller said he made the acquaintance of the fruit of this plant
at the dinner table in the course of last year, and could certainly say that
it was most delicious, the taste being somewhat between that of banana
and pine-apple. The seeds had been obtained, he believed, from South
America, and were given by a lady to a vine grower in Madeira, by whom
they were planted, and they throve so well there that the plant was now
found all over the island. The introduction was due to this lady's son, who
was a member of the Club.

Mr. King, in reply to a question, said that the inflorescence bore a good
deal of resemblance to that of the common Arum, but both male and female
flowers were found on the same spadix.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Mr. King for his communica-
tion.

Mr. J. D. Hardy described some observations which he had made upon
Stentor 2 )0 ^y mor l^ ms > from which he had no doubt as to its being a
further development of Stentor viridis ; his remarks upon the subject were
illustrated by black-board drawings.

The President said a great deal might be done in this direction if they
had a good growing-slide, which would enable the development of an or-

41

ganism to be easily followed. Until this was systematically done, they were
not in a position to say whether many of the species with which they were
acquainted were not transitional forms. His own belief was that many of
them were ; certainly this was a case in which they wanted more light
upon the subject.

Mr. Washington Teasdale said that with regard to the question of keeping
objects alive, he had often been struck by the simple way in which Mr.
George Chantrill, of Liverpool, kept them ; he had a number of zinc shelves
which he kept under a bell glass, and the requisite supply of moisture was
supplied to the slides by means of a quantity of thick felt which was kept
constantly saturated. In this way Mr. Chantrill was accustomed to keep
his objects alive for many months, examining and making drawings of them
with extraordinary patience. He had come to the conclusion that many
organisms did change from one form to another.

Mr. Teasdale said that he had been asked to mention at the meeting of
the Club that the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union had arranged for a Fungus
Foray to be held at Leeds on the last clay of September and first of October.
It was intended to hold an exhibition of fungi, and he invited the members
of the Club to assist by the exhibition of micro-fungi or other specimens
on that occasion.

The President read a paper " On the Injection of Specimens for Micro-
scopical Examination."

The Secretary moved a vote of thanks to the President for his paper,
which was put and unanimously carried.

The President having briefly responded, announced the meetings for the
ensuing month, and the proceedings terminated with the usual Conver-
sazione, at which the following objects were exhibited : —

Sections of leaf and stalk of Rhododendron,') -* T D ,, 7 . 1

?. Mr. F. W. Andrew.

double-stained ... ... ... )

Hydrafusca ... ... ... ... Mr. E. Dadswell.

Sexual organs of male wasp ... ... Mr. F. Enock.

Alcyonella flabellum, from Highgate... ... Mr. W. Goodwin.

Young Sole, polarized ... ... ... Mr. H. R. Gregory.

Stentor polymorphic, &c. ... ... ... Mr. J. D. Hardy.

Anguis frag His, tactile (?) corpuscles of the") „ „

penis ... ... ... ... )

Suckers of Cuscuta epithymium, applied to'

leaves of Heather
Cyclosis in Closterium
Drosera longifolia
Freshwater Sponge, showing circulation ... Mr. F. Wood.
Dr. T. Partridge, of Stroud, distributed specimens of Argulus follaceus.
Attendance — Members, 56 ; Visitors, 5.

Mr. J. W. Reed.

42

October 14th, 1881. — Conversational Meeting.

}

The following objects were exhibited : —
Pediculus capitis — the tracheal system par-
tially injected with carmine
Section of Stem of Geranium, polarized
Sections of Coccidium of Rhodymenia ciliata~)
( Marine Alga) showing spores in situ j

South African Fly, showing curious antennae..
Exuvium of Leaf Insect in a Spider's Web
Calyx of Thymus vulgaris, from Nice, show-
ing white hairs and oil-glands
Foot of Dytiscus marginalis
Seed-vessel of Rosa canina, showing hairs
Parasite of Skate, Crustacea suctoria, fe

male, with egg-sacs
I stlxmia nervosa, front and side views
Sections of spathe and peduncle of Monstera
deliciosa

}

1

• • •

}

The President.

Mr. F. W. Andrew.
Mr. T. H. Buff ham.

Rev. H. J. Fase.
Mr. F. Fitch.

Mr. H. G. Glasspoole.

Mr. H. R. Gregory.
Dr. Matthews.

Mr. A. D. Michael.

Mr. H. Morland.

Mr. J. W. Reed.

Attendance — Members, 68 ; Visitor, 1.

from Mr. T. C. White.
,, the Society.

October 28th, 1881. — Ordinary Meeting.

T. Charters White, Esq., M.R.C.S., (fee, President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
Mr. W. P. Reynolds and Mr. V. Simons were balloted for and duly
elected members of the Club.

The following additions to the Library and Cabinet were announced : —
"Proceedings of the Linnean Society"
" Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society''
" The Northern Microscopist ''
" Report on the Methods of Research in

use at the Naples Aquarium"
" The American Naturalist "
" The American Monthly Microscopical Journal"
" Annals of Natural History"
" Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science "
" Challenger Reports "
•'Floating Matter in the Air " (Tyndall)
17 Slides, illustrating subjects treated by
Dr. Carpenter ...
The thanks of the Club were voted to the donors.

Mr. H. Epps exhibited and described an old solar microscope manufac-
tured by Culpepper probably about 1750, which had been lent to him by a
friend for the purpose.

'}

in exchange.

in exchange.

purchased.

>>

}

from Mr. J. W. Groves.
„ Mr. T. C. White.

43

Mr. Ingpen said it was evidently a very favourable specimen of the solar
microscope, but in its present condition it was of course unsuited for other
purposes ; probably, however, it would be found that the optical portion was
made to detach so that it might be adapted for use in the ordinary way.

The President, in proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. Epps, expressed his
feeling that however interested they might be in what had been so well
done so long ago, they might congratulate themselves upon the greater
capabilities of the microscopes in use at the present time.

Mr. J. W. Groves exhibited a freezing microtome, which he described as
an improvement upon the one which he had exhibited at the April meeting
of the Club. The arrangement for freezing by means of ether spray re-
mained practically the same, but the apparatus was fitted so as to be clamped
to the table, and was provided with a sliding tube which made it available
for use with substances which required to be embedded in wax. This holder
was raised as required by a divided micrometer screw ; the razor was also
fitted into an improved frame, so constructed that it could be worked readily
in any direction, whilst the inclination of the edge of the blade to the ob-
ject could be regulated as required; the frame in which the razor was
clamped was fitted so as to move in a true plane on the face of the two
steel runners fixed on either side of the stage. The arrangement was
further described by means of drawings on the black-board.

The President thought the apparatus was very beautifully made and con-
trived. He inquired whether it took long to freeze objects in that way,
and what amount of danger attended the use of such an apparatus at
night in proximity to a light ?

Mr. Groves, in reply, said he had on the former occasion, when he exhibited
the apparatus, explained that there could be no danger in using the appa-
ratus, because a tube was provided which carried the whole of the
waste ether into the open air through a window or otherwise. He also
then showed that if the bellows provided were not sufficiently powerful
the spray could be driven by means of a contrivance worked by the foot or
by any other motor. He could perfectly freeze a specimen in If minutes,
and that with the cheapest methylated ether at sp. gr. 73.

Mr. J. W. Reed inquired if the machine could be used with ice and salt,
as he thought that freezing with ether would be inconvenient in private
houses and in some places it might be difficult to obtain.

Mr. Groves said this machine could not be used with ice and salt ; the old
form of it was so used, but this improvement had been made as rendering
the process far more convenient. The only inconvenience likely to arise
was from the escape of the ether vapour into the house, but only a very
small quantity was likely to do so during the act of filling the reservoir.
The objection, on the other hand, to ice and salt was that in most parts of
the country ice was difficult to procure at any reasonable price, and in many
places it could not be had at all, whilst ether could be carried and kept any.
where, and was always ready for use. As regarded the comparative ex-
pense of the two methods, he thought the cost of the ether was about the
same as that of the ice without the salt. The old machine could be

44

procured from Mr. Swift by any one who still preferred to use ice and

salt.

The President said that the Secretary had suggested that he should say a

few words as to the plan on which he had acted in presenting some slides to

the cabinet that evening. In his Presidential Address he had suggested

the desirability of having portions of a book on microscopy illustrated by a

series of slides with references. He had endeavoured to carry out this idea

to some extent by presenting to the Club 17 slides of subjects treated of by Dr.

Carpenter, and he hoped that some other members would take up similar

subjects and illustrate them for the benefit of the Club. He felt sure that

such collections would prove of great help, especially to those who were

beginning to work up any subject.

Mr. J. W. Groves thought the suggestion was an extremely good one, and
hoped it would be the means of stimulating members to do something for
the Club. He was sorry to say that there were many who never seemed to
do anything, but he hoped that after what had passed every one would try
to assist. He did not think that it would be difficult to illustrate an entire
work if members would set about it in the right way.

Mr. Deby exhibited and described an apparatus for obtaining monochro-
matic light for use with the microscope ; the beam of light from the
lamp being condensed by a large bull's-eye, was passed through a slit and
refracted by means of a bisulphide of carbon prism. A simple contrivance
enabled any portion of the spectrum to be employed for purposes of illu-
mination.

The President inquired if this method possessed any special advantages
over the solution of copper and ammonia which had been recommended ?

Mr. Deby said the light obtained by means of the prism was certainly
purer.

A member said he used a large hollow bull's-eye, containing bisulphide of
carbon, which he thought would be of further advantage, as giving a much
larger dispersion.

Mr. Ingpen considered the light of the pure spectrum better than that
obtained by passing white light through any coloured mixture. In the case
of finely marked objects the resolving power of objectives was greater with
blue than with red light. A simple method of obtaining a brilliant mo-
nochromatic light was very desirable under many circumstances. It would
be valuable with objects mounted in substances of very high refractive
index, to which attention had recently been called. It was impossible
to make use of the entire aperture of large angled oil-immersion lenses
upon dry-mounted lined objects, and when mounted in balsam the mark-
ings became almost invisible. It was therefore very desirable to mount
them in media of much higher refractive index, and the object became
more and more visible in proportion to the difference between its own re-
fractive index and that of the medium in which it was placed. He should
like to direct the attention of some of their chemical members to this sub-
ject, with the view of finding out what clear substances of high refractive
index were available for this purpose, and in which not only diatoms but his-

45

tological specimens could be safely mounted. Phosphorus was troublesome,
and not very satisfactory for the purpose, but if they could lind some suit-
able flnid which had an equally high refractive index, it would be of great
value. Mr. Stephenson had, amongst other objects, mounted a Podura
scale in phosphorus, and found that the effect produced was an inversion of
its usual appearance in air.

Mr. Julien Deby said he had mounted a good many objects in mono-
bromide of napthaline, and could say from experience that it was of no
good whatever except in connection with homogeneous immersion lenses. He
could not, however, recommend it even for them.

Mr. Ingpen said there were two distinct points to be borne in mind in
mounting objects in these substances, one being that they enabled the whole
of the large apertures of the oil -immersion lenses to be employed, and the
other that they increased the visibility of the objects themselves.

The President said the members would no doubt be glad to hear that they
were favoured by the presence of their distinguished honorary member,
Mr. Kitton, of Norwich, to whom they would, he was sure, accord a hearty
welcome.

Mr. Kitton acknowledged the compliment paid to him by the President,
and expressed the pleasure he felt at being present on that occasion.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to those gentlemen who had
favoured them with communications, and the proceedings terminated with
the usual Conversazione, at which the following objects were exhibited : —

Rectal papillae of Earwig, Flea, and Blow-fly... The President.

Section of Coral with For aminif era, polarized Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Fructification in Plocamium coccinium ... Mr. W. G. Cocks.

Pleurosigmob jormosum and P. fasciola,} m * T C f"
mounted in phosphorus ... ... J

Objects exhibited by Monochromatic Light ... Mr. Julien Deby.

An old Microscope,'by E. Culpepper, circa 1750 Mr. H. Epps.

Section of Shell of Brazil-nut ... ... ,,

Stem of White Water-lily, stained ... ... Mr. W. Goodwin.

"The Ginger-beer Plant"... ... ... Mr. J. D. Hardy.

Pleurosigma attenuatuw, mounted in mono-
bromide of napthaline ...

Various vegetable sections ... ... Dr. Matthews.

Wing of Tabanus bovinus, &c. ... ... Mr. T. S. Morten.

Section of Ovule of Ulmus ... ... Mr. J. W. Reed.

Larva of Corixa ... ... ... Mr. F. Wood.

Attendance— Members, 79 ; Visitors, 10.

"| Mr. J. E. Ingpen.

46

November 11th, 1881. — Conversational Meeting.

}
}

The following objects were exhibited : —
Section of Eye of Water-beetle
Ceramium rubrum (Marine Alga) from

Teignmouth
Polynema ovulorum (the Fairy-fly), female,

one of the most minute insects known
Sphagnum acutifolium, from Keston ...
Flea, female, showing the muscular structure
Aspidogaster conocliila (Trematode Worm) J

from alimentary canal of the Freshwater >

Mussel ... ... ... j

Bryozoa, various and new species from Tas-
mania, Victoria, &c.

Head of Spider, Saliicus scenicus ...
Patella (Nacella) pellucida
Theine Crystals from the Tea Leaf, polarized
Amphipleura pellucida, shown with PowelH

and Lealand's oil -immersion 1-1 2th, Num. !

ap. 1 "428. Direct light with full aperture |
of achromatic condenser ... J

Raphidotheca Marsliall-Hallii (Sponge)

Section of petiole of Salisbury a adiantifolia...

Pond Life

Head of Wild Bee (Halictus ?J

Mr. F. W. Andrew.
Mr. T. H. Buffham.

Mr. F. Enock.

Mr. H. G. Glasspoole.
Mr. W. Goodwin.

Mr. J. W. Groves.

The Rev. J. J. Halley,
V.P. Microscopical
Society of Victoria.

Mr. G. Hind.

Mr. A. D. Michael.

Mr. T. S. Morten.

)■ Mr. E. M. Nelson.

Mr. B. W. Priest.
Mr. J. W. Reed.
Mr. H. J. Waddington.
Mr. F. Wood.

Attendance — Members, 54 ; Visitors, 8.

November 25th, 1881. — Ordinary Meeting.

T. Charters White, Esq., M.E.C.S., &c, President, in the

Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
The following gentlemen were balloted for and duly elected members
of the Club :— Mr. Walter H. Coffin, F.C.S., &c, Mr. George S. Dixon, Mr.
Reginald T. G. Nevins, and Mr. Robert Wyatt.

The following donations were announced, and the thanks of the Club
voted to the donors : —

" Proceedings of the Royal Society"

" Journal of the Linnean Society"

" Science Gossip "

"The Analyst"

" The Northern Microscopist "

from the Society.
Mr. T. C. White,
from the Publisher.

in exchange.

47

" The American Naturalist " ... ... in exchange.

„ " Monthly Microscopical"

'} -

Journal "

" Van Heurck's Synopsis of Belgian Diatoms ; ' purchased.
" Annals of Natural History " ... ... „

A part of Kent's "Infusoria" ... ... ,,

Six Slides ... ... ... ... Mr. H. F. Hailes.

One Slide ... ... ... ... Mr. J. W. Groves.

Mi*. Goodwin exhibited and described the action of his Growing slide.*
This was formed of a triangular glass plate, each side being 3 inches in
length, supporting a circular thin glass cover 1| inches in diameter, kept in
position by three ebonite stnds round which indiarubber bands were passed.
The cover-glass was perforated in the centre by a small hole surrounded by
a brass ring. Through this hole objects were introduced, and water dropped
from a vessel by a thread of soft cotton. Three similar threads under the edges
of the cover drew off the superfluous water. The objects could be readily
examined in any part of the circumference of the cover. Mr. Goodwin
showed the plan adopted by him for keeping a number of the slides in
action at the same time. In reply to questions, Mr. Goodwin further stated
that the object of the ring was to keep the cover together and to strengthen
it as well. The large size of the cover glass was intended to give plenty of
room for objects, affording as it did nearly two square inches of space ;
whilst the glass was sufficiently thin to admit of a |-in. objective being used.

Mr. Chas. Stewart thought it a most excellent slide, but suggested that
if glass stops were used instead of vulcanite, they would not be so likely to
scale off from variation of expansion.

Mr. W. H. Gilburt read a paper "On the Structure and Division of the
Vegetable Cell," illustrating the subject by a series of coloured diagrams.

Mr. C. Stewart, in reply to the President, said that Mr. Gi] hurt's account
had been so clear that it left nothing to be desired, and he had nothing to
add to it. In the animal cell the same steps were gone through ; the pro-
cess was best seen in the large nuclei of malignant tumours which divided
into 2, 3, or 4, the steps being exactly the same. He thought, however,
that he must object to the term " fluid" as it seemed to be used in the paper.
If they took the term as physicists used it, it was correct, for it was not
the extent of the motion which made the difference between the two states,
but rather that in the case of a solid the motions were fixed as regarded a
certain centre, whilst in the fluid the centre was not fixed, but there was a
constant migration of particles, because the centres themselves were in
motion. He might also say that these, examinations of vegetable cells
were not difficult ; it only required some rapidly developing cells hardened
in spirit and stained with logwood to see all the things which they had been
hearing about.

The President inquired if Mr. Gilburt' s attention had been drawn to

* This instrument was first described by Mr. T. C. White, at the meeting of the Royal
Microscopical Society on the 9th of November, 1881, and a description and figure of it will
be found in the "Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society," ser. 2, vol. I., p. 946.

48

certain reticulations which occurred in Pro'ococcus pluvialis when stained
with osmic acid. There seemed to be no structure until they were stained,
and then surrounding the nucleus were seen what looked like fine canaliculi.
Mr. Gilburt said he had observed this feature in Protococcus, but did not
think it was altogether the same as the President had described ; he thought
the reticulations were simple protoplasmic filaments which acted as guide
ropes to keep the nucleus in the centre.

Mr. Stewart said he quite agreed with this view ; they had their parallel
in the lines of Volvo x by which they were kept in position.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Mr. Gilburt for his paper.
Announcements of meetings for the ensuing month were then made, and
the proceedings terminated with the usual Conversazione, at which the fol-
lowing objects were exhibited : —

Rare Foraminif era ... ... ... Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Freshwater Sponge (living) ... ... Mr. W. G. Cocks.

Head of Wild Bee, Andrena fulva, male ... Mr. F. Enock.
Anthophysa Midler ii, &c. ... ... Mr. J. D. Hardy.

Attendance — Members, 66 ; Visitors, 6.

December 9th, 1881. — Conversational Meeting.

The following objects were exhibited : —

Larva of Corethra plumicornis, polarized

Cuticle of Oleander

Palate of Cattle Fish, Sepia officinalis

Polysiphonia ftbrata, Marine Alga, in fruit .

Tongue of Sand Bee

Epistylis opercculata (? ) very large and rare

Section of leaf of Iris germanica ...

Actinospheria Eichornii ...

Pleurosigma formosum, with 1-12 oil-immer-
sion objective and central light ...

Demodex folliculorum, from mange in dog

Jaw of Cobra

Distichopora coccinea, Coral, showing the
styles in situ ...

Section of Samara of Fraxinus excelsior

Cuticle of interior of pitcher of Nepenthe

Alga? with Diatoms in situ

Hcematopinus piliferus ? ...

}

The President.
Mr. F. W. Andrew.
Mr. W. R. Browne.
Mr. T. H. Buffham.
Mr. A. Button.
Mr. W. G. Cocks.
Mr. H. Morland.
Mr. T. S. Morten.

Mr. E. M. Nelson.
Lt. Col. O'Hara.

Mr. B. W. Priest.

Mr. J. W. Reed.
Mr. G. Sturt.
Mr. H. J. Waddington.
Mr. F. Wood.

Attendance — Members, 50; Visitors, 2.

49

December 23rd, 1881. — Ordinary Meeting*.

T. Charters White, Esq., M.R.C.S., &c, President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
Mr. J. G. E. Bolton, M.R.C.S., and Mr. Claude C. Claremont, M.R.C.S.,
"were balloted for and duly elected members of the Club.

The following additions to the Library and Cabinet were announced : —
" Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society " from the Society.
" Proceedings of the Watford Natural His-)
tory Society" ... ... ... )

" Popular Science Review" ... ... ,, the Publisher.

" Science Gossip " ... ... ... ,, ,,

" Analyst " ... ... ... ... ,, ,,

" Northern Microscopist " ... ... ,, ,,

" American Monthly Microscopical Journal "... in exchange.
" Annals of Natural History " ... ... purchased.

" Micrographic Dictionary " ... ... ,,

" Davis's Practical Microscopy " ... ... ,,

Twelve Slides — Australian Bryozoa... ... Rev. J. J. Halley,

Four Slides, showing method of Wax-cell )
Mounting ... ... ... )

The thanks of the meeting were voted to the donors.
The Secretary referred to the recent death of Mr. Wm. Mogenie, one of
the oldest members of the Club, and well known for his great mechanical
ingenuity and knowledge of practical microscopy. He would long be re-
membered by many who had availed themselves of his skilful and ready
help. His portable microscope was in very extensive use. Personally his
amiability and kindness endeared him to a large circle of friends.

Dr. Matthews said that they had also suffered by the death of Dr. Rams-
bottom, to whose influence might be attributed his own connection with the
Club, He was a thorough worker with the microscope ; indeed, he never
saw a more ardent student in the examination of organic life. He would
only add that death had thns terminated a friendship which had extended
over 38 years, and had left a void which would not be easily filled.

The President was sure that the remarks which had just been uttered
would find an echo in every heart.

Mr. Ingpen said their regret at the loss of Dr. Ramsbottom would not
be diminished by the fact that he had for some time retired from member-
ship with them.

Dr. Matthews said that his withdrawal was solely due to physical in-
capacity ; his friend had suffered from haemorrhage of the retina, and was
so afraid of losing the sight of his other eye that he had for some time been
obliged to give up all microscopical work.

Mr. A. D. Michael said he wished to make a few observations upon an
object shown under a microscope in the room, but he had found that
Journ. Q. M. C, Series II., No. 1. e

50

Dr. Matthews had hit upon the same plan, so that he hoped that what he
had to say might be considered as a joint communication. The object to
which he referred was shown under polarized light, and he wished to sug-
gest that polarized light might be of use as an addition to staining for
vegetable and some animal substances, as it seemed to differentiate tissues
somewhat in the same way. In practice it might be found to have its dis-
advantages, but it might have its advantages. No special preparation of
the tissues was required, and the conditions were more natural than if they
had undergone the process of bleaching and staining. Then it would be
possible, when they had a known selenite, always to repeat the same effect
when required, whereas staining frequently faded, and if there were any
doubt as to the meaning of what was seen, the effects conld be altered,
and results secured that would be unattainable with the fixed effects of
double staining. There was, of course no difficulty in getting triple staining,
or producing various colours, but the object which he had shown was as if
stained with a single colour only. He wished also to say that the object
was shown with oblique polarized light on a black ground. He had heard
some discussion as to the best means of obtaining polarized light on a black
ground, and had heard it suggested that the results depended entirely on the
object, that it was to be obtained only now and then in the case of certain
objects which had a capacity for it, also that it depended on the size of the
polarizing prism and other causes. No doubt these things did affect it to
some extent, but he was of opinion that the effect was largely a question of
what the object was mounted in. He did not find that Canada balsam was
the best medium ; in fact, the best effects were obtained by mounting iu
glycerine, when there was very little difficulty in making out the details,
and the object looked brighter upon a blacker ground as contrasted with its
appearance when mounted in balsam. He thought the idea would be found
worth attention, especially where it was desirable to examine objects under
various conditions of direct and oblique light.

The President said they must all feel very much obliged to Mr. Michael
for this communication, but so far as he was concerned, he had always
found a good deal of difficulty in using polarized light on objects mounted
in glycerine.

Dr. Matthews said he had but little to add to what Mr. Michael had
said so well. On one point, however, as to the superiority of glycerine over
balsam for this kind of examination, his experience was rather the reverse
of Mr. Michael's. Whether this arose from any difference in the objects he
could not say, but he thought that the effect was probably due to some
difference in the density of the objects ; the only way of settling the point
would be to mount the same object in both ways. He should also say that
if they got extremely oblique light, they got also fringes of colour, probably
owing to diffraction. Mr. Michael had been very successful in getting dark
ground illumination, but there seemed to be some curious effect produced
by a spot lens, less colour being produced in that way than without, although
it might have been supposed that the contrary would be the case. As to
the differentiation of tissues, precisely the same effects were produced as

51

bj staining, but with the advantage that a harmonious appearance was
always produced, whereas with staining the selective power caused differ-
ences of colour which were not always harmonious.

Mr. Stewart said he had not made any researches into polarized light as
applied in this oblique direction ; it appeared, however, that it might be
advantageous, but without having experience of its working it was exceed-
ingly difficult to say much about it. He wished to inquire what was the
position of the selenite ; he presumed that it was put with its plane parallel
to that of the object.

Mr. Michael said it was placed in the ordinary way.

Dr. Matthews said that he had made some sections of ovaries of plants
which proved to be too thin to produce any effect. He afterwards gave
them to Mr. Ingpen, who he believed could get no coloured effects from
them ; he should like Mr. Stewart to see them. So far as he had tried, no
selenite thick or thin would differentiate them on the black ground.

Mr. Stewart thought this would probably be owing to the very slight
tension in the cells; in the ordinary thickened cells they would be much
more likely to get colour than in rapidly built cells such as those of
the ovaries. The most delicate colour to use for such a purpose would be
the blue of the third series, which was rather difficult to obtain ; it was a
blue the value of which consisted in the fact that a very slight difference of
thickness would replace it by emerald green or red, so that a very slight
degree of tension would suffice to produce colour effects.

Mr. Ingpen said he put the specimens mentioned by Dr. Matthews under
his microscope in polarized light ; he could not use the particular selenite
which had been referred to, but he failed to obtain any effect with these thin
sections, though with thicker sections he got a similar effect to that which
Mi\ Stewart had described. He was in favour of mounting vegetable
tissues in glycerine. He had mounted many in glycerine jelly, and with
that medium he obtained a very delicate reaction.

Dr. Matthews said he had found this method very useful in examining
morbid tissues ; in looking at a specimen of epithelioma he found that the
cells showed the black cross as in the starches.

Mr. Stewart said that the only conditions necessary to show the black
cross were to have lines of strain either radiating from the centre or run-
ning concentrically ; it did not matter what the nature of the structure was
so long as these conditions existed ; so that if they had epithelial cells
either wrapped round a cylinder or radiating from a point, they would get
this effect at once without doubt. Mr. Stewart then, by means of black-
board drawings, explained more fully the production of the black cross in
the two ways referred to.

The thanks of the meeting were unanimously accorded to Mr. Michael,
Dr. Matthews, and Mr. Stewart for their remarks.

Mr. J. D. Hardy exhibited and described an improved Compressorium.

The President said there could be no doubt that this form of compressor
obviated the disagreeable squeezing-out so often complained of.

Mr. Fox inquired what was likely to be the cost of it.

52

Mr. Hardy thought that it might probably be made for about 10s. ; the
one he exhibited had been made only for his personal use.

Mr. Ingpen hoped Mr. Hardy would excuse him for hinting that this came
rather near to Mr. Wenham's paraboloid compressor ; the method of hing-
ing the cover was certainly a great improvement.

Mr. Hardy thought it made all the difference whether it worked on a hinge
or on a pivot.

Mr. Ingpen said that for use with the paraboloid the lower glass should
be made as nearly flush with the base-plate as possible ; many compres-
soriums were unsuitable in this respect. In Abbe's condenser the top lens
came up almost to the surface of the stage. A drop of water between the
lens and the slide gave a blacker ground. If he were right in his idea that
Abbe's condenser was the condenser of the future, those who were devis-
ing new forms of apparatus would do well to bear this in mind. The com-
pressor exhibited by Mr. Hardy was very beautifully made, and quite
capable of performing all that was claimed for it.

Mr. Michael said that he regarded the substitution of a hinge for the
pivot as a great point, the pivot being very liable to damage the specimen
by slipping ; for when they had a delicate object to examine they must leave
it wherever it might be well displayed. He thought, however, that the
screws would be likely to interfere with the free movement of the objective
over them.

Mr. Hardy said he had used it with a f-in. objective.

Dr. Matthews said there was another form of compressorium which had
the merit of moving with a parallel motion — he referred to the Boss form
— it was impossible with this instrument to destroy an object by lateral
motion, whilst the field was large enough to allow of the examination of an
object even if it did not happen to be near the centre.

Mr. Ingpen said he had used this compressorium for years, and considered
it to be one of the most useful. With regard to keeping lively objects in
the middle of the glass, Dr. Hudson had adopted the plan of surrounding
rotifers with a few threads of cotton wool, which he found very useful in
preventing them from straying about the field.

Mr. Stewart said he had often used cotton wool in examining rotifers
and had found it exceedingly useful ; but prepared cotton wool, from which
all fatty matter had been extracted, should be used for the purpose.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Mr. Hardy for his communica-
tion, and the proceedings terminated with the usual Conversazione, at which
the following objects were exhibited : —

Head of a House-spider, Ciniflo similis, male Mr. F. Enock.
Bamboo fibre, polarized ... ... ... Mr. H. R. Gregory.

Yolvox globator, infested with Notommatal

., \ Mr. J. E. Ingpen.

parasua ... ... ... ) ot ^

Section of Serjanus, illustrating the use of-\

polarized light as a means of differentia- > ]y; r# ^. j), Michael.

tion instead of double staining ... J

Attendance — Members, 37; Visitors, 2.

53

Sand.

By J. G. Waller.

(Read January 27, 1882.)

A grain of sand is one of the smallest of visible atoms, and as
such passes into the language of metaphor. The aggregation
of sand, as a symbol of untold multitude, is probably familiar
to every language upon earth. In the operations of nature, work-
ing about us, we are ever being astonished at the minuteness of
an individual agent towards a mighty end. So it is with sand, not
only as it is working now, but as it has worked in illimitable ages
past. The attrition of hard particles — silex — whether produced by
storm floods, river torrents, or the tempestuous waves of the ocean,
plays a part in its production, blocking up estuaries, and forming
at the mouths of rivers dangerous shoals. This is mostly shown by
those grand rivers of the earth draining large continents, and not
tidal. But at the mouth of our own Thames, which is tidal, and a
mere pigmy in comparison, we have large sandy deposits, often
fatal to the mariner. Thrice has our great poet named the " Good-
wins," and in " The Merchant of Venice " it is spoken of as " a very
dangerous flat and fatal, where the carcasses of many a tall ship
lie buried."

Then there are the vast sandy deserts, like dry oceans, also
disturbed with moving waves and storms, overwhelming whole
caravans of merchants or of pilgrims, who leave behind them a trail
of whitened bones. Besides which it has its floods, as we call those
moving sands lifted by the wind, and which in Egypt have en-
croached upon that fertile oasis, burying many of its ancient and
renowned cities, whose monuments would seem almost to defy the
hand of time. Nor are we without these phenomena in our own
country, as the entombed church of Piranzabuloe, in Cornwall, testi-
fies. But one of the most remarkable of these sand floods occurred
in 1688, on the borders of Suffolk and Norfolk, and which is fully
described by a gentleman, named Wright, a great sufferer by its de-
structive influence, in the early numbers of the Philosophical Trans*

Journ. Q. M. C, Series II., No. 2. F

54 J. G. WALLER ON SAND.

actions of the Royal Society. It is too long to insert here in full, I
will therefore briefly give you some of the facts.

It began at the small town of Lakenheath, where some sand-hills,
covered with scanty herbage, got denuded of this by the wind blowing
tempestuously from the south-west. These sands, lying on the
chalk, belong, as I believe, to the series called by geologists the
" Thanet sands." At first, about ten acres of ground got covered,
but before the flood had advanced four miles it had overwhelmed
one thousand. This visitation continued for many years, in spite of
all attempts to arrest its progress. After twelve years had passed
away, its first real obstacle was descending a valley, but it then
ascended the opposite hill, entered the town of Downham, destroying-
several houses. The house of the narrator was almost buried in
sand, which had mounted up to the very eaves of his outhouses. It
partially filled the little river Ouse, and interfered with its naviga-
tion ; and it was only conquered by years of sedulous care and
enormous labour.

But it is in the formation of this earth's crust that the mighty
power of sand is shown in enormous sedimentary deposits ; the
Old Red itself being estimated at 10,000 feet in thickness, added
to which are others still earlier, and many that carry us upwards to
the Tertiary system, where I propose particularly to enter and dis-
cuss our subject. What is this sand, so ubiquitous, so vast in its
aggregations ? A writer on " Beach Pebbles " put the question to
a traveller from the great desert, in respect to which he answered>
" Powdered quartz."*

But it is the sand of our coasts in which the special problem for
discussion lays, and more particularly that on our eastern and
southern shores, where are beaches of shingle fed from the debris of
the upper chalk.

If we take a diagonal line from the estuary of the Exe to the
Humber, east of it lays the large chalk formation of England.
Sometimes it shows itself in rearing lofty white cliffs, by which our
country obtained the name of " Albion ;" at others it is only known
by its ruins, and these have an extensive admixture of other deposits.
Nevertheless, its bones, it may be said, are everywhere left behind in
the dense flint shingle. These beaches are often many square miles
in extent, shutting up ancient estuaries, which are known to have

* " Beach Eambles in Search of Seaside Pebbles and Crystals," by J. G.
Francis, B.A., p. 107.

J. G. WALLER ON SAND. 55

been navigable in historic times. But besides these accumulations
by the sea-shore, we are well familiar in the great London basin of
deposits of this same shingle with intercalated layers of sand, and
the gravel, with its ferruginous hue, known to all for its use in our
garden walks. This last, the most superficial of such deposits, caps
the London clay over a large part of the metropolitan area. There is
another earlier, known as the Bagshot sands, of which Hampstead
Heath gives us an example easy for examination. Proceeding
downwards, we pass through the vast mass of the London clay, and
come to the Pebble bed, well represented at Blackheath, and well
named for its small rounded pebbles, like marbles of various sizes,
and mixed with this is sand. All these pebbles are of chalk flint.
Deposits, more or less mixed with sand, succeed these, until we
arrive at the " Thanet sands," lying on the chalk. Of what material,
then, are all these sands, and wherein derived is the question pro-
posed to this Society.

Of course the prima facie view is that they naturally arise from
the attrition of the flint. Nothing is more apparently obvious.
Away from the region of the chalk flint, our coast sand is mostly
composed, as we might imagine, of the debris of the adjacent cliffs
or rocks, or from other prolific but neighbouring sources of supply,
such as shells of molluscs, or calcareous particles of the remains of
various zoophytes, as, for instance, at Land's End, and other parts of
Cornwall. After we pass westwards of the estuary of the Exe,
chalk flint is of rare occurrence on our coasts, although an outlier of
the chalk debris may be seen west of but close to the Teign.

Now then we will proceed to see how far this question belongs to
us as a Microscopical Society. Let us take a pinch of sand out of a
washing down of a road paved with gravel, after storms of rain, and
submit the same to the microscope ; or, to be certain in our experi-
ments, let us pound up some chalk flint finely. Our examination
of it will show us that the flint has a granular appearance, and does
not polarize.* Let us now take a piece of quartz and reduce it to
powder, and submit this to the microscope, and we find it to be
translucent and clear, and it polarizes brilliantly. Moreover, the
fracture of the quartz is different from that of the flint. These con-
ditions understood, we are now prepared for the problem to be
solved, one which belongs to the geologist, if not to the physicist.

* It would be more correct, perhaps, to say that it does not give any
prismatic colours.

56 J. G. WALLER ON SAND.

Oar eastern counties have beaches of chalk shingle, and sand,
and the cliffs are mainly a tertiary deposit, consisting of clays,
sands, and flint gravel. These counties are devoid of building stone,
so all their ancient churches are built of flint, and much ingenious
workmanship is therein shown. Little stone is seen but that which
belongs to the upper greensand, locally known as " clunch," some-
times oolite in small quantities, which must have been brought
round by sea, and occasionally sandstone, which, belonging to the
Wealden system, could not have been obtained nearer than Hastings.
Consequently there is no material whatever on the coast capable of
furnishing any quartz sand. Still one must always remember that
the operations of nature are large, and our views of them small.
The visitor to Yarmouth must remark the deep sand deposits on its
shore. Let us cross to the other side of the German Ocean, and
large dunes or hills of sand are found all around the coasts of Bel-
gium, leading into France as far as Boulogne. Does it come from
chalk flint ?

I have examined sand from Lowestoft, and I find it all to be of
quartz ; in a slide made from its sand only one piece of chalk flint is
seen. Dr. Matthews gave me some sand from Aberdovey, Wales ; it
is mostly of quartz, with some intrusions of other substances, but none,
of course, of chalk flint. Indeed, no one could discover any difference
between the two, although one is on the eastern side of our island,
amid nothing but chalk debris, whilst the other is on the western
side, in the Irish Channel, where no chalk or chalk flint exists at all.
Let us travel higher up our eastern coasts as far as Yorkshire, and
at Bridlington the sand is again quartz ; in a slide made of it the
few intrusions of flint are about three or four.

Let us now come back to our southern coast, and one of the facts
that first attracted me in relation to this subject was that organisms
using sand for building purposes always choose quartz. It is so
with that curious sponge Dysidea fragilis ; it is so also with the
ovisacs of one of the mollusca, which at first look so much like a
sponge. These are completely built up of quartz sand, and although
other fragments are sometimes used, and even foraminifera, yet it is
rare to find anything of chalk flint. Dysidea is common at
Brighton, where the shingle is of chalk flint, and one might think
sand also ; but it is quartz that is used.

What then becomes of the flint sand ? We see the rounded
pebbles : abrasion must produce powder, i.e., sand. What then can

J. G. WALLER ON SAND. 57

become of it ? Does the Hint change to quartz ? Is it possible that
any molecular metamorphosis can take place, or, if not, what becomes
of the abraded dust of chalk shingle that it is always found in such
small quantities? Then whence proceeds this very abundant and
ubiquitous quartz sand ? The set of the current of the English
Channel is, I believe, from west to east ; that of the German Ocean
from north to south.

We must think of all the conditions existing to account for the
prevalence of quartzose sand. On our southern coast there is a
large gap between the chalk cliffs of Dover and that of Beachy Head,
in which the Wealden deposits make their appearance, consisting
of sandstone grit, shaley laminated sand rock, and the like — all of
fluviatile origin — remains of the delta of a mighty river, equal, at
least, to that of the Ganges. This sand is of pure quartz, or
nearly so, and as the Wealden outcrop crosses the English Channel,
though not represented on the opposite shore, here is necessarily an
abundant supply of quartzose sand. Still we must note that the
coasts, all along this gap, have the usual beach of chalk flint
shingle. Indeed, it is represented in enormous quantities, often a
mile and more in diameter at the closed-up ancient estuaries
referred to. First, there is that of Pevensey, where the old Roman
castrum is in a more complete condition than is found elsewhere,
and which once defended its entry against our ancestors the Saxon
pirates. Let us be proud of our Saxon forefathers, of whom the
Roman historian pitifully says, " Pra3 ceteris hostibus Saxones
timentur."* Then let us go to Romney Marsh, where is the same
phenomenon on a grand scale, and another ancient estuary closed
up, the " Portus Lemanis,'' its fortress, which once defended it, a
shapeless, disrupted ruin. Here the rolled shingle covers many a
square mile. Where then is the detritus of all this mass, if it is not
found in the sands adjacent ?

There is still to be brought into the account the upper and lower
greensand, the Shanklin sand which must furnish a part of the
ocean bed as it crops up by Folkestone at Copt Point. But we have
to consider whence these are derived. The more we seem to go into
the matter the more intricate or extended does the problem appear ;
and yet its solution ought] to be within a small circle, for what
we are seeking to know is, what becomes of the detritus of chalk
flint?

* Ammianus Marcelliuus.

58 J. G. WALLER ON SAND.

Let us now proceed to examine the geological deposits of the
tertiary period, formed within the large depression scooped out of
the chalk, called the London basin. And we will take them in
order, and first the brownish loam or brick earth, which is abundant
about and in London. Washing a portion of this, taken from the
neighbourhood of Hampstead, after getting rid of extraneous
matter, there remains a portion of sand, which appears to be in
part or wholly of quartz, though much comminuted. Amongst it,
however, are some, though few, intrusions of chalk flint. The
main fact is the general quartzose character of the whole.

Next in order comes our familiar gravel, with its sand layers of
that deej) ferruginous hue, prized for our garden walks. Of this I
took samples from a section on Epping Forest, near Loughton,
made for a supply of fine gravel. Here, one would have thought, if
anywhere, being in the midst of a chalk flint debris, rolled together
to all sizes, that a vein of sand must show the same form of silex.
My specimen was taken four feet from the capping of loam, firmly
compacted together, and of a deep rusty colour. On submitting a
slide made from this to the microscope by polarized light, I was
astonished to find it so uncompromisingly of quartz. There were
other substances, yet extremely few in number, and I am not able to
pronounce upon them, but not the smallest atom of our familiar
flint of which every pebble around was composed. But not satisfied
with one specimen of the sand, I took another from a vein of a pale
grey tint close by, and the same results ensued, as indeed one might
have expected, only in such investigations one should never assume
anything, but resort to experiment.

We now come to the series of the Bagshot sands, to which I have
alluded, and testing a specimen from Hampstead Heath, after
washing it, quartz is found to be the largest basis of the deposit.
Other particles, however, are seen in it, some of which look like
amber, and some fragments remind one of the colour of the
Cairngorm, yet it requires a mineralogist to pronounce upon them.
The character is also special in the presence of dark specks and
nearly black bodies, and we must certainly seek in another direction
than flint shingle, of which few signs are to be seen, as the factor of
the Bagshot sands.

The vast mass of the London clay, that deposit of estuary mud of
a tropical sea, has its layers of sand represented at White Cliff and
Alum Bays, Isle of Wight, and of these I have examined several

J. G. WALLER ON SAND.

59

specimens, representing upper, middle, and lower beds, as well as
other series, but they all declare the same general facts, quartzose
sand, with few intrusions of flint, more or less comminuted. So we
will take into consideration the layer styled " Pebble bed," where
the flint is rolled into marbles of various sizes, intermingled with and
embedded in sand. Here, if anywhere, one would expect to meet
with atoms of flint in abundance. But the examination of the fine
sand of the bed referred to shows the same result, and it suggests to
us that flint abrasion produces very small and thin flakes which easily
break up and disappear into very minute parts, but that the harder
quartz, never taking the same form of fracture, is a more enduring
form of silex. So that the one disappears rapidly, whilst the other
continues an almost indefinite time. This is the only way I can
account for a phenomenon so apparently singular ; but I am
open to the conviction of a better solution, if that can be given. The
result, then, is remarkable in the all but absent flint particles.
These are, indeed, represented, but they are few in number in com-
parison with those of the quartz. There are other substances than
this, but, as before, it is the predominant form, although in the
midst of roiled flints. The sand is very fine in character, the
particles of quartz very small, resembling those of the brick clay.

The " striped sands" immediately beneath this now require to be
examined, and one would beforehand be ready, with the facts before
us, to pronounce upon the result as one obvious or logically certain,
for quartz appears to be everywhere the staple product in the com-
position of sand. Of these, so well represented in the Isle of
Wight, at Alum Bay, I have got an extensive series through
the kindness of Mr. J. Starkie Gardner, F.G.S., than whom
no one is better acquainted with the Tertiary System. It
may seem to some an absurd reiteration to go on proclaiming the
same results through a series so evidently cognate ; but this is the
only way to exhaust our evidence, and repetition is confirmatory.
The series obtained from Alum Bay, which I have examined, are
eight in number, and their story is similar to what has been
already recorded ; but it would take some time to give them that
minute examination which would make a scientific record. I have,
nevertheless, made an analysis, which will be found at the end of
this paper.

We now come to the chalk from whose upper series our vast
deposits of flint shingle must have been derived by the extensive

60 J. G. WALLER ON SAND.

denudation and destruction to which it has been subjected. Belong-
ing, geologically speaking, to this series are two layers entitled
<( the Upper and Lower Greensand," separated from each other
by the Gault Clay. The Upper Greensand is best known to us
by the limestone, called familiarly clunch, firestone, hearthstone,
used extensively in the Middle Ages as a building stone, the Palace
and Abbey of Westminster having been mainly constructed of it
from the quarries of Merstham, though passing under the general
term of " Ryegate Stone." It was also used for effigies, and for
indoor purposes ; kept free from damp, it was durable, and pre-
served a sharp edge in its working. Dissolving the lime from it,
the deposit shows us nearly half to be finely comminuted quartz,
some few particles of flint equally fine, and a large quantity of
silicified casts of many species of foraminifera, and particularly of
one very minute in size, which I assume to belong to the Globio-
gerinas. Other forms I am not acquainted with, look like portions
of very minute encrinites, but I must profess my ignorance ; and
as the subject has been worked out by Ehrenberg, I suppose it is
well understood. I may remark, however, that these silicifications
have in composition a remarkable resemblance to that of chalk flint,
which would rather support the view of Mr. Hawkins Johnson,
that the latter was of organic origin. As a factor of the sand of
our coasts, this deposit could play but a small part, and may there-
fore be dismissed for the consideration of the lower bed.

This bed is known as the " Shanklin " Sand, from its being so
well represented in that locality, and has at its base a well-known
building stone called " Kentish Rag." Taking some seams of
sand found with it for examination, I find one-half to be composed
of quartz, the other of dark opaque grains, which I cannot identify.
I have examined also other specimens from different beds, but the
result is the same.

I will now, in conclusion, take a retrospective glance at the facts
presented before you. The one great fact is the predominance of
quartz. It is only in the two lower beds, " the Green Sand," that
this material is not in excess of every other, and even in them it
constitutes one-half, and in neither case does the chalk flint appear
but in very small quantities. That it should be almost absent
in the gravel composed of flint shingle, and from sand veins
found in the very midst of its rolled pebbles, is very surprising. The
quartz sand, of the gravel, has larger grains by three or fourdiame-

J. G. WALLER ON SAND. 01

ters than in any other locality named, and has many points of in-
terest to study. It is well rounded by attrition, which is not the
character seen in many other examples. It seems to be often in a
state of apparent decomposition, and is covered by an oxide of iron,
which requires to be removed by acid for its more complete examina-
tion. In the Bagshot Sands we should scarcely have expected to
find chalk flint grains, but they appear in the proportion of 4 to
7 per cent., and in this deposit the quartz has some rounding of the
edges, but not giving a character to the whole. Nevertheless it
more resembles that of the superficial gravel.

I alluded, at the commencement of my paper, to the sand found
at Bridlington, and particularly that at Lowestoft, on account of the
comparison instituted between it and that of Aberdovey. But it
would be a very imperfect argument, after so many specimens from
ancient deposits, not to notice some of those now forming. By the
kindness of Mr. Priest, I have been enabled to examine examples of
the sands of Cromer and those of Ramsgate. They are composed
of fine examples of rounded quartz particles, with chalcedony and a
few other substances, some of calcareous origin. That at Cromer
is resplendent in its quartz, when beneath the microscope, and is,
perhaps, the finest of all my examples, extremely beautiful as an
object by polarized light, and, I think, instructive in its illustration
could one pursue the question further than at present I propose to
do. From Hythe, in Kent, I had some sent up to me from high-
water mark, thinking it might there be more free from the engross-
ing quartz. But no, the result is the same as in the previous
cases, but these last examples all declare in the flint particles
present, flakes unrounded in opposition to the rounded quartz, that
the last is ancient, produced by the attrition, perhaps of ages, whilst
the other is modern and recent. This evidence is remarkable, as it
declares an important fact in our inquiry, which points to the one
as ephemeral, to the other as of an unknown duration, perhaps
dating its origin from the primitive rocks.

From Dymchurch, in Romney Marsh, where the flint shingle is
seen extending for miles up to the point of Dungeness, and always
increasing, the sands reveal the same oft-repeated tale, — quartz,
with an almost entire absence of flint particles.

I do not here pretend to show whence proceeds this abundant
supply of quartzose sand all around our coasts. It is a matter for
further inquiry and investigation, but one must suggest the proba-

62 J. ^i. WALLER ON SAND.

bility of it being, in part at least, brought down by rivers. And
this will at once lead us to consider whether that noble stream, the
Rhine, may not be one of the factors of supply. Descending from
the Alps in a strong and powerful current, generally turbid, but
particularly so after a season of storms on the breaking up of winter,
it has for ages poured forth its waters into the German Ocean. I know
nothing more imposing than the scene presented, when looking down
from the hills beyond Bonn upon the vast delta before you. It is
as level as the sea, and far on the horizon the city of Cologne is
detected only by the lofty towers of its cathedral, as if a ship
riding on the ocean. Its many mouths must each send forth, mixed
with its strong current — for it is not tidal — a mass of sand, repre-
sented doubtless by the dunes of Holland and Belgium, which have
been planted with Equisetum to tie together its instable substance.
The Alpine loess of Belgium is itself largely commingled with
quartzose sand of similar origin, making a large source of supply.

Amongst other materials than quartz referred to, chalcedony is
the most common ; there is also a kind of conglomerate, of minute
parts, which polarize vividly, some fragments homogeneous in colour,
being of a neutral grey, as well as some other substance less easy to
describe, whilst in some few cases there are pieces evidently from
granitic rock. Flint, when seen under polarized light, does not
exhibit colour, but nevertheless its character is thus best distin-
guished. Occasionally I have imagined I have seen some instances
in which a change has been undergone. I speak of this doubtfully,
but certainly there is nothing which has the slightest approach to a
metamorphosis into quartz. It has been supposed by some that an
infiltration of chalcedony does take place occasionally, but that must
surely be, if at all, before the formation of sand particles. An old
French writer, M. Reaumur, in the " Memoires de FAcademie des
Sciences," 1721, writes : — tc By a coarse operation emery is reduced to
powder, and suspended in water several days ; but nature may go
much further than this, for the particles which water detaches from
hard stones by simple attrition are of an almost inconceivable
degree of fineness. Water thus impregnated contributes to the
formation of pebbles by petrifying the stone, as it were a second
time. Stones already formed, but having as yet a spongy texture,
acquire a flinty hardness by impregnation with this crystalline
fluid."

I state this as I find it. The author gives no facts, so the hypo -

J. G. WALLER ON SAND. G3

thesis must stand by itself. But there is one point worthy of note,
wherein he speaks of the extremely minute particles produced by
mere attrition. This in rounded pebbles must indeed be infini-
tesimal, and one could hardly expect to find such particles of any
moment in the composition of sand. But it must be otherwise
with the rough flint, as it comes from the chalk, and doubtless such
sand particles of this material, which are found, are thus produced
before the pebble is softened into a rounded form.

It would certainly be plausible, as has been suggested, that a
molecular change may take place in flint during the lapse of ages,
difference of temperature, and the like. But the fact that flint
particles do appear, although in small quantities, in ancient deposits,
exactly the same as you may now artificially produce them, deprives
us of the use of such an argument. Its great scarcity, as I have
shown you, almost seems illogical, but the sternness of our facts
makes us accept them whether we like it or not, and we must endea-
vour to explain this phenomenon by the same logic of facts. But
the ubiquity of quartz sand is not confined to our coast. In exa-
mining some organisms from South Australia, containing sandy par-
ticles, some also from Mauritius, Madagascar, and Algoa Bay,
the same facts are shown. There are not only the common quartz
grains, but other materials, such as are visible among the sandy
deposits I have described, and seen in about the same proportion.
This is interesting, as declaring one universal source, whether in the
northern or southern hemisphere, and helps in the illustration, if not
in the solution of the question before us.

I must confess to ignorance of many points of detail suggested
in this inquiry, but as we are composed of many active units, let us
take a moral from a grain of sand, one of the smallest of atoms,
yet in its aggregate playing so great a part in this earth's crust.
Let, then, the aggregation of our Society's units make a large addi-
tion to our scientific knowledge ; the subject before you has yet
many lapses, and I trust these may be filled up by your active
researches.

The following is an analysis of the sands of the Tertiary
system : —

BEDS OF SAND. TERTIARY SYSTEM.

1. London Clay. Alum Bay.

2. Top of London Clay. White Cliff Bay.

3. Top of London Clay. Alum Bay.

64 J. G. WALLER ON SAND.

4. Middle London Clay. White Cliff Bay.

5. Middle London Clay. Alum Bay.

6. Base of Bournemouth Series. Alum Bay.

7. Base of Bournemouth Series. Alum Bay.

8. Bournemouth Beds. White Cliff Bay.

9. White Cliff Bay.

10. Studland Beds. Alum Bay.

11. Hengistbury.

12. Hengistbury. White Sand.

13. High Cliff.

14. Cruch Barrow.

15. Cruch Bai'row.

16. Lower Boscombe Beds. White Sand.

17. Thanet Sands. Alum Bay.

18. Upper Bagshot. Hendon Hill.

Examined by polarized light give the following results : —

1 . Quartz, grains medium size, clean, few flint grains.

2. Quartz, grains generally small, a few larger, no rounding, flint
grains few.

3. Quartz, grains clean, medium size, some conglomerate of fine par-
ticles, few flint grains.

4. Quartz, grains small, irregular in shape, some opaque grains, flint
grains few and small.

5. Quartz, grains generally small, intermingled with a few larger, all
ragged in outline.

6. Quartz, grains small, minute particles, brilliant under polarized
light, very few and small grains of chalk flint, edges ragged.

7. No material difference, but less of minute particles.

8. "Very similar in character to 6 and 7.

9. Quartz, clean, medium size, few flint grains, no rounding.

10. Quartz, grains large, ragged edges, mixed with smaller grains, red
colour due to an oxide of iron.

11. Quartz, grains large, rounded, brown grains caused by a cementing
of smaller ones together with a substance of that colour, a few flint grains.

12. Quartz, grains lai^ge, not rounded, few and small flint grains.

13. Quartz, grains not rounded, of medium size, some cemented to-
gether by a dark substance, few flint grains.

14. Quartz, grains large, apparently once rounded by attrition and after-
wards broken by crushing ? some grains conglomerate of small particles.

15. Quartz, grains large, some much rounded, as above (14).

16. Quartz, grains generally large, some rounded, others irregular in
outline, and then smaller, some conglomerate of fine particles, very few
flint flakes.

17. Quartz, grains variable in size, but generally small, very fine par-
ticles, also few flint grains.

18. Quartz, grains variable in size, but generally small, like 6 and 7.

J. G. WALLER ON SAND. 65

To understand the above analysis it would be well to see what the result
is in modern accumulations. Generally, it will be found, that the larger
grains of rounded quartz are the products of the sea-shore. The smaller
ragged characters are not so easy to account for; they resemble what is
produced by crushing with a hammer. This is exactly how it appears in
the ° Pebble Bed," that hard closely compressed mass of shingle which lies
beneath the London Clay. It may be, however, that these deposits of
finer sand are a sifting of smaller particles by a gentler action of water,
which, leaving heavier parts behind, carries off the lighter. There are,
certainly here some interesting questions for the geologist to determine,
and I have left much to be studied in the question of " Sand."

M

On the Histological Development of the Larva of

corethra plumicornis.

ByT. Charters White, M.R.C.S., L.D.S., &c, &c. (President).

(Read Feb. 24, 1882 J

Plate II.

For investigating any of the mysteries of biological science the
student is generally recommended to avail himself of those simple
demonstrations of life which nature so abundantly supplies to all who
seek for them. Examples present themselves on every hand, but in
no case so ready to our use as in aquatic life, whether animal or
vegetable, and by carefully studying them we are enabled to watch
and record operations in many respects similar to those taking
place in that mysterious laboratory which every man carries about
with him in his own body, and which in their totality make up the
sum of his daily life. This recommendation was brought home to
my mind with much force while examining the changes taking
place in a larva of Corethra plumicornis, which, being kept under
observation on the stage of my microscope, enabled me to watch
the gradual development of its various tissues and organs. The
interest felt in this observation would have been intensified had I
been able to have watched its development from the egg, but in the
present case its internal organs were in a tolerably advanced state
of growth, sufficient of its development, however, being wanting to
furnish much interesting work for observation and to supply me
with notes for a short communication this evening, leaving the
earlier stages of this creature's development to be worked out by
those fortunate enough to procure its eggs, when it would be
interesting to bring its life-history up to that stage in which it
usually appears before us, and in which it was presented to me.

The external form of this creature is so well known to all micro-
scopists that I need not occupy your time and attention by any
lengthened description of it, but it may aid our subsequent exami-
nation if we note that its body is divided into eleven segments, the
head being the first, the thorax the second, followed by nine abdo-

T. C. WHITE OX THE LARVA OF CORETHRA PLtJMICORNlS. 67

minal segments, the first being- furnished with an elaborate plume
of branched hairs, four finger-shaped processes, and a set of rather
formidable-looking serrated hooks. We all know its beautiful
transparency, from which it is sometimes called the " Glass larva."
It is this transparency which renders it such a convenient subject
for observation, although the superposition of many of the internal
organs creates a difficulty in tracing out the developmental changes
which only patience and a change of position in the larva can over-
come. In striving to know as much about this creature's internal
anatomy as possible, we might be tempted to seek such ex-
traneous aids as can be furnished by staining fluids. ; and here let
me relate my experience. Corethra ■plumicorms will live in carmine
solution for several days, but not take the stain in the slightest
degree ; osmic acid of -^ per cent, strength does not seem to
affect it injuriously ; even acetic acid largely diluted with water
does not seem to act prejudicially to an existence extending over
some hours ; but if the internal organs are dissected out and put
into staining fluids, they take the colour readily. I must therefore
content myself by giving you the best description I am able to do
at present, hoping that by the patient investigations of others better
methods of observing the histological changes of this larva may be
devised.

The particular larva of Corethra which I made the subject of
these observations was, when first presented to my notice, in a con-
dition slightly less developed than that commonly met with.
Diaphanous as glass, with very little differentiation of its internal
tissues, its muscles were visible as structureless bands of jelly
endowed with feeble contractility. The pulsations of its dorsal vessel
took place with dull and broken rhythm ; its alimentary canal had
but faint markings on it, scarcely pointing to its future glandular
character ; its brain was just indicated by a crude gelatinous mass
situated in a sinus posterior to the eyes, while the central gan-
glionic chain was only rudely mapped out by scarcely distinguish-
able fibres. The viscera were held in place by suspensory ligaments,
which stretched from them to the internal sides of the body cavity.
The circulatory system contained nothing of the nature of a blood-
corpuscle. Such, then, is a rough description of its almost rudi-
mentary condition at the period I commenced my observation. Day
by day, however, showed an alteration in the tissues, and changes
might have been noted even in a few hours, but when they occurred

6S T. C. WHITE ON THE HISTOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

or how they took place it is not possible to state, so gradual was
the process. The larva under observation, and which upon
several occasions I had the pleasure of submitting to your notice,
monopolised the stage of my microscope for one month, when it died,
but you may see by looking at others collected at the same time as
this the changes which have been produced in that time. From the
rudimentary condition I have described it has passed into a stage
wherein its internal anatomy is considerably advanced, and it is pre-
paring by other interstitial changes for assuming its pupal existence.
I cannot give you the definite times at which these changes took
place, but can only note them somewhat in the order in which they
occurred, taking first the various segments and their special con-
tents, and then those parts which are common to the whole body.
The first segment or head, with its pairs of formidable jaws,
naturally claims our primary attention. Professor Ray Lankester,
at the time his father occupied this presidential chair in 1865, wrote
a short but accurate account of the anatomy of this larva, which
was published in the " Popular Science Review" for that year, and
which I should recommend to your notice. In this article he
divides these jaws thus : — The first of these pairs he terms Tarso-
gnaths, or oar-like appendages ; each consists of two parts, a stem
and four long terminal bristles. The next pair are termed Tricho-
gnaths, or labial bristles. The third pair are very curiously serrated,
and called Pristognaths, or saw-like organs. Then next in order,
counting from the end of the beak, comes a central prehensile organ.
It is a projecting, cylindrical body, capable of being moved back-
wards and forwards, having its top crowned by two groups of hairs.
This is called the Mesognath. This can be used either as a finger
and thumb by the apposition of the two lips carrying the respective
groups of hairs with which it is crowned, or it can be used as a
broom to sweep prey into its mouth. When bent forward it falls
easily and naturally between the two jaws, which are placed next in
order, and called Platygnaths, very powerfully constructed, and
capable of crushing the unfortunate victim who once gets entangled
in their grip. All these organs are furnished with strong muscles,
and these were, as you will suppose, more developed than those
supplying the rest of the body, and not so important to the creature's
subsistence, for as Corethra, as we will call this larva for brevity's
sake, is reckoned a very predacious and voracious subject, and as
development presupposes and requires food to keep it up, so here

OF THE LARVA OF CORETHRA PLUMICORNIS. 69

we find in the set of jaws and the early development of their
muscles the means by which its food can be obtained ; but even in
these muscles very little striation was evident. It required careful
focussing' and an accurate amount of light to make out any structure
in the muscular system of the first segment. The brain at this early
stage showed no structure, but soon minute granules made their
appearance, these granules ultimately becoming cells, the outer part
of the brain being characterised by cells of a larger size than those
occupying the deeper and inner parts. At the same time its colour
deepened to a greenish yellow tint, and exceedingly fine ramifica-
tions of tracheal tubes coursed through its substance. From whence
these tubes acquired their supply of air I could not discern. There
did not appear to be any connection with the air vesicles in the next
segment at this stage, although there is later on. The brain is
formed by the union of two ganglia, which give off processes to
supply the eyes. It is covered by a membrane, in which may be
seen large projecting nuclei. It is contained in a cavity, and held
in suspension by ligaments, which allow a certain amount of move-
ment, and is bathed at every pulsation of the dorsal vessel by the
circulatory fluid. Two nerve-cords, being the continuations of
ganglia forming the brain, divide in their passage from the dorsal
aspect of the body to the ventral, and embracing the pharynx, unite
below it to form the sub-cesophageal ganglion, the first of the chain
to which I shall presently call your attention. The next points of
attraction in this segment are the eyes, which arrest attention by
their size and blackness. They are situated one on either side of
the head, and appear as oval black patches encircled by clear, brilliant
lenses. It is not easy to see that the entire surface of the eye is
covered with similar lenses, and without careful opaque illumina-
tion they are liable to be overlooked. I have not been able to detect
anything like an expansion of the optic nerve to form the retina,
but from analogous instances in the insect world it may exist in
this case, although not easily seen. Situated near them are two
smaller black spots. These have occasionally one or two lenses,
similar to those in the larger eyes, irregularly placed at the edge of
the black, and it was only surmised that these might be considered
rudimentary eyes, especially as no connection apparently existed
between them and the brain, but by placing the larva in a shallow
trough which allowed it to turn, I was enabled to see under a -J-
of an inch power that a small branch of the optic nerve is in con*
Journ. Q. M. C, Series II., No. 2. Q

70 T. C. WHITE ON THE HISTOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

nection with this eye, proving conclusively the true nature of this
ocellus (fig. 1). In this first segment we may also notice a portion
of the pharynx. This is very -wide, and opens as a trumpet-shaped
mouth between the two Platygnaths. In its earlier stages it
appeared almost destitute of structure, saving for the presence of
minute longitudinal stria3, but as development advanced it was seen
to consist of two coats, an internal one comparatively devoid of
structure, but armed with a number of minute chitinous teeth, and
an external coat composed of longitudinal and annular muscles.
These two coats are attached loosely to each other by very fine and
scarcely visible fibres of connective tissue. This creature has a curious
power of everting the whole of the pharynx together with the gizzard
and oesophagus when irritated, and this proceeding does not appear
abnormal or productive of inconvenience, but rather, if we may
judge by the presence of two partially coiled nerves which accom-
pany the oesophagus in this eversion, it would seem as if an
intentional provision had been made for this performance, the
animal swimming about for days with its pharynx projecting from
its mouth.

Passing now from a description of the head, we will examine the
second segment, or thorax, and its contents. The most prominent
objects which first arrest the attention are two dark reniform bodies,
which occupy the centre. These are air-vesicles. They consist of
a delicate membrane distended by air, and having their coats
strengthened by chitinous rings similar to those met with in the
tracheal tubes of the Insecta. The outer surfaces of these sacs are
partially covered by patches of some dark brown material possessing
one or more nuclei, but of whose nature and purpose I cannot offer
any explanation except that later on in this creature's development
these patches appear broken up ; at the same time large globules
of some highly refractive substance appear in their vicinity. In the
earlier stages these air-vesicles appear to have no communication
with other parts of the body, nor with each other, nor with two
similar air-sacs situated in the ninth abdominal segment, but later
on each vesicle undergoes a slight elongation of one of its ends,
forming a short tube having a bulb at its extremity, from which
ultimately a number of fine tracheal tubes are distributed through-
out the adjacent tissues. Near these air-sacs are seen the salivary
glands. These are two elongated tubular bags with sacculated walls
containing large nuclei. The necks of these bags are prolonged

OP THJE LARVA OF CORETHRA RLUMICORNIS. 71

into tubes, wliich unite to form a common duct, opening on the
floor of the pharynx just inside the mouth, but not easily demon-
strated, owing to the superposition of various muscles and ganglia.
On the external surface of the Corethra some very delicate fan-
shaped tufts of hair may be seen, and from a careful examination of
them and their connection with the muscular and nervous systems
we may reasonably conclude that they serve as organs of touch.
They are situated in pairs, four on each segment of the body. Those
on the thorax are abundantly supplied with nerve-fibres of a larger
size than are given off to the other segments. The nerves pass off
from the large ganglia and enter ganglia at the bases of the hairs.
These ganglia are of a different character, being furnished with a
striated, cortex and a granular centre, and seem specialised organs,
of whose office I do not feel justified in speaking positively, but
they form most interesting objects of investigation when examined
in profile, for then we are enabled to make out the connection which
exists between the base of the hairs and the ganglion of the ventral
chain (fig. 2). Those situated on the other segments are more
simple in their character. They are attached to the integument by
their bases being inserted in a cup-like depression. On looking
through the transparent walls of the body, the root of each hair
will be seen in connection with a ganglionic body, from which we
can trace a nerve-fibre giving off branches to the muscles over which
it passes, and becoming merged in the central ganglion of that
segment (fig. 2). The office of these hairs seems to be that of
warning the larva of the proximity of danger, the contact against
these hairs conveying the irritation to the central ganglia, when a
reflex action is set up in the muscles, causing them to contract, and
producing those jerking movements by which Corethra manages to
evade any obstruction which may intrude in its path. Passing over
the intervening segments, which contain nothing specially to be
noticed, we come to the eighth, in which we observe two elongated
bodies filled with ovoid cells. In the earliest conditions of this
creature's existence these are clear spindle-shaped sacs filled with a
structureless protoplasm, but having a small collection of granules in
their central axis. After a time these granules become distinguish-
able as cells, filling the whole interior ; later still these spherical
cells become egg-shaped, while the fusiform sac becomes elongated
and tubular, and in them we recognise the characteristic ovisacs of
the Insecta. Now, having called your attention to the special

72 T. C. WHITE ON THE HISTOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

organs met with in an examination proceeding from the head to the
tail, I will say a few words on those organs which extend through
all the segments.

The nervous system first demands our consideration as the main-
spring of this wonderful and interesting life. Taking their rise in
the two united ganglia which form the brain, two cords of nervous
matter passing from the dorsal aspect to the ventral, divide to
embrace the pharynx, and uniting below form the sub-cesophageal
ganglion, the first of a chain of ganglia which terminates in the
ninth segment. In its earliest stage this ventral chain, like the
brain, was structureless and gelatinous in its character, whilst its
ganglia were indicated by rude unshaped swellings. The connecting
cords could scarcely be described as fibrous, but soon the borders of
all became more defined, and nervous fibrillar could be seen dis-
tributed to the muscles and organs in their neighbourhood. It is
about this time that the muscles begin to show an opalescence when
viewed with a spot lens, and I call your attention to this fact because
of the interesting connection existing between the completion of the
nervous system and the commencement of histological organization ;
under a moderately high power and careful illumination this opales-
C3nce can be resolved into fine but irregular striation of the muscular
fasciculus, the stria3 not marshalled into the regular order character-
istic of the muscular fibre later on, but scattered about in i( admired
disorder." Entering the sarcolemma of the muscle together with the
nerves, are delicate branches of the tracheal system ; the growth of
these tubes would form a most interesting subject for future study.
In the early stages of development, the viscera of this larva are held
in position by apparently structureless ligaments which connect the
viscera with the interior of the body cavity ; in the later stages these
ligaments are perforated in their interior by the growing tracheal
tubes, which, terminating in exceedingly fine ends, may nevertheless
be seen by daily observation to be pushing their way onwards, and
giving off similar branches to adjacent organs, and so furthering
their development, because the nervous system may furnish life, but
the respiratory function must support it, and so the two functions
take place almost side by side, the nervous system getting rather
the start. The muscular system may be divided into three groups,
those which supply the jaws, those confined to each segment, and a
longer set which pass through several segments ; they are contained
in fibrous sheaths of sarcolemma, having large nuclei projecting

OF THE LARVA OF CORETHRA PLUM1CORNIS. 73

from the surface. No longitudinal fibrillation seems to take place
in them till a very late stage of their growth, when it occurs by a
splitting up of the bundles at the points of their attachment, and
then the bundle or band becomes a fasciculus of fibres, but long
prior to this stage the interesting phenomena of their behaviour
under polarized light may be observed, the entire muscle being
thrown into contraction by disturbing the larva, transverse bands of
colour appear which vary with the intensity of the contraction. The
sarcolemma is thrown into corrugations by the contraction, each
corrugation showing on one side a colour and on the other side its
complimentary tint, and as the contraction ceases, and these corru-
gations subside, the colours fade and gradually pass away, remind-
ing one of the coruscations of an aurora. Upon treating the larva
to a very dilute mixture of spirit, acetic acid, and glycerine, the
muscles threw off waves of contraction which, passing down the
course of the fasciculus, could be readily watched, the node of con-
traction showing a fibrous appearance rather than a striated.

The union of the nerves with the muscles is shown in a most
instructive manner in this larva ; the Doyerian eminences are tri-
angular processes of nerve matter, through which the nerve becomes
fused with and pierces the sarcolemma of the muscle. Several of
these eminences can be seen either in profile or as plates, according
to the position in which the larva may place itself.

The dorsal vessel or heart forms another interesting subject of
observation, and will attract the attention of all who examine Core-
tlira by its regular pulsation, as well as by the incessant movement
of those pale brown bodies attached to its walls. While voluntary
muscles are at rest, those organs immediately subservient to life
must perform their offices independently of volition, and the animal
heart, whether it be of the vertebrate or invertebrate type, must
keep up the constant current of the circulating fluid. It may differ
in shape between the two classes, but its office is the same, and it
is under the same nervous influence, viz., that of the sympathetic
system. The ventral chain does not give off any fibres to supply this
dorsal vessel ; therefore these incessant pulsations, averaging from
12 to 19 per minute, are automatically governed by the pale brown
granular bodies attached to its walls. These bodies are of various
shades of brown, and carry one or more large nuclei, increasing by
self-division. They are exactly of the character of the sympathetic
nerve-cells figured in " (Strieker's Histology," p. 176. The dorsal

74 T. C. WHITE ON THE HISTOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

vessel commences in the tenth segment, and terminates in what we
might call the neck of the larva ; it is composed of two coats of
great tenuity, the internal lining having delicate longitudinal muscles,
and the external coat composed of circular fibres, but it is so dia-
phanous that it is only by very careful manipulation of the light
that these details can be made out. It seems to float freely in the
body cavity, being held in suspension by very fine muscles which,
like guy- ropes, attach its walls, allow of free movement, and become
merged in the sheath of the sympathetic ganglion. In the ninth
segment these muscles form quite a fan-shaped leash of threads.
At its commencement in the tenth segment, it has an opening
guarded by a large valve, and at its termination in the thorax is
another opening, round which a band of circular muscular fibres
acting like a sphincter are placed. There are about eight valves in
the abdominal segments, but none in the thorax, but the coats of
the vessels in this portion are more muscular, and it seems to have
the power of contracting longitudinally to such a degree as to close
itself almost entirely ; it does not seem to act so rhythmically as
the abdominal portion. There are several valves in the abdominal
portion, but on account of the free movement of the vessel, the focal
plane is being constantly shifted, rendering it a matter of consider-
able difficulty in using a high power to see the details of their
mechanism, but it appears to me that their shape may be compared
to a truncated cone, opening inwards into the vessel, and closed
by the sudden collapse of its two sides. That openings through
these valves do exist, I have proved by seeing blood corpuscles
drawn through them in the act of expansion. The blood, which is
very sparingly supplied with corpuscles, can be detected slowly
moving through hollow spaces between the viscera, and it conse-
quently bathes the external surfaces of them till being drawn by the
expansions into the dorsal vessel, it is impelled towards the head,
when it again slowly descends through these cavities, and the pro-
cess is repeated ; thus you see the circulation is of the simplest
description.

The alimentary system, commencing as we have seen in the first
segment by the mouth and dilated pharynx, is continued about as far
as the junction of the thorax and first abdominal segment, where the
pharynx terminates in a gizzard ; this gizzard is formed externally
by several rings of powerful muscles, while the interior is furnished
with a membrane having a close array of chitinous ribs and two

OF THE LARVA OF CORETHRA PLUMICORNIS.

75

curved teeth. Passing through this organ, we see an extremely
narrow oesophagus, which extends through the third segment. It is
composed of longitudinal muscles, and accompanied on either side
by a slender nerve. This oesophagus passes into a wide extremity
of the stomach. The stomach extends from the third segment,
tapering gradually to the ninth segment, when it is slightly enlarged,
and four ca3cal tubes are given off from it, two going as far as the
eleventh segment and two stopping short in the tenth. I cannot
speak positively of the office of these tubes, but I think they may
be biliary tubes, as sometimes when the larva is well fed they are
filled with a yellow secretion ; they have thick nucleated walls, with
granular structure. Passing from the juncture of these tubes, the
alimentary canal again becomes suddenly narrowed to a tube but
little wider than the oesophagus, and then as suddenly becomes
dilated to form what would be a rectal pouch, showing, however, no
evidence of rectal papillae ; the alimentary canal then tapers off
again and ends in an opening in the centre of the four finger-shaped
processes which help to form the tail. It is a very rare thing to
find anything approaching to the nature of solid food in this canal,
and in one larva which I examined we may find the explanation for
this — its pharynx was widely distended with small daphniaa and
cyprides, and the stomach was in active peristaltis, when after a time
it vomited the shells, and a violent jerk of the body scattered the
evidences of its meal.

But now, approaching condensation of the integument partially
obscures the sight of the wondrous changes taking place within ;
even this obstacle to further observation is attended by much in-
terest, for we notice amoeboid corpuscles in active movement, gather-
ing together in groups in the endothelial lining of the outer shell
of the larva, and especially in the neighbourhood of the union
between the segments, and uniting by their borders form hexagonal
or polygonal cells, in which may often be seen brown particles which
may ultimately furnish the chitinous tissue of the future pupa. It
is this subsequent obscuration which will bar our progress in watch-
ing the further developmental changes, and it is to be regretted,
inasmuch as it would be of great interest to see from which tissues
the wings are formed. We can only hope that when this larva under-
goes its first moult and passes into the pupa, the integument may
be sufficiently transparent to enable us to record further develop-
ment. Gentlemen, I hope I am not wrong in presuming that what

70 T. C. WHITE ON THE LARVA OF CORETHRA PLUMICORNIS.

lias been to me a subject of much interesting observation during the
last two months will be also to you a source of much pleasure and
instruction. I have endeavoured in this paper to be as clear in my
description as the necessarily complicated condition of this larva's
anatomy would permit. I have left a great deal more to be worked
out, and difficult work too. I feel that I have not been erroneous in
any of the details I have set before you, and though I may be wrong
in the interpretation of the offices I have assigned to the various
organs, I think my critics will find it more easy to criticise than to
work out a contradiction. I have faithfully described what very
good appliances and careful observation permitted me to see, and I
leave the subject in your hands, feeling that there never was one in
which it was more necessary to remember the injunction of that
careful observer Dr. Braxton Hicks, viz., "to follow truth with
hesitating steps/'

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II.

Larva of Corethra plumicomis

Fig. 1. — Eyes, and their connection with the brain.

Fig. 2. — Branched hairs, and their connection with muscles and ganglion.
Fig. 3. — Progressive stages in development of ovisacs.
Fig. 4. — Sympathetic nerve-cells attached to wall and valve of dorsal
vessel.

.urn. Q."M

Ser.IT.Yol.I. PI II

3.

i

4.

T C.White del.

.AeraBrcs. sc.

77

List of Objects found at the Excursion to Snaresbrook,

March 11, 1882.

Communicated by Mr. W. G. Cocks.

(Read March 24, 1882.)

Bursaria truncatella (a singular and somewhat rare organism), abundant
in one pond only.

JEcistes umbella, scarce.

Melicerta pilula, abundant on Sphagnum.

Noteus quardricomis.

Anurcsa curvicornis, plentiful.

Monocerea ruttus and other loricated rotifers.

Conochilus volvox, abundant and very fine.

Stephanoceros Eichornii, very large.

Melicerta ringeus.

Epistylis grandis.

Actinophrys Eichomii.

Actinophrys viridis.

Amceba, very fine.

Dinobryon sertularia.

Diffiugia proteiformis, very fine and active.

Floscularia ornata.

JMicrasterias rotata.

Clasterium, various.

Volvox globator, abundant, and in fine condition.

Nitella, fine and abundant.

Stauricojrpus gracilis, a very beautiful chain form.

78

LIST OF EXCURSIONS, 1882.

The following are the arrangements for the current season : —

March 11. Snaresbrook. Returning from George Lane Station.
To meet at Liverpool Street and Fenchurch Street Stations.

March 25. Highgate Station, for Alexandra Palace. To meet
at Moorgate Street and King's Cross Stations.

April 8. East End, for Finchley. To meet at Broad Street Station.

April 22. Caterham, for Godstone. To meet at Cannon Street
Station.

May 6. Esher. To meet at Waterloo, Suburban Station.

May 20. Totteridge. Returning by Mill Hill. To meet at
Moorgate Street Station.

June 3. Chingford. To meet at Liverpool Street Station.

June 10. Excursionists' Annual Dinner.

June 17. Hampton Court. To meet at Waterloo, Suburban
Station.

July 1. Shepperton, for Walton. To meet at Waterloo, Loop
Line Station.

July 15. Weybridge. To meet at Waterloo, Main Line Station.

July 29. Day Excursion, Whitstable. To meet at Holborn
Viaduct Station, 10 a.m., or next later Train.

August 5. Homerton, for Hackney Marshes. To meet at
Homerton Station.

August 19. Northfleet, for Swanscombe. To meet at Cannon
Street Station.

September 9. Taplow. To meet at Paddington Station.

September 23. Bromley, for Keston. To meet at Holborn
Viaduct Station.

October 7. Barnes. To meet at Waterloo, Loop Line Station.

The time of departure from Town, unless otherwise specified,
will be the First Train after Two o'clock.

W. G. Cocks, W. W. Reeves, \

E. Dadswell, T. Rogers, Excursion

F. W. Gay, J. Spencer, Committee.

F. OXLEY, t

79

On Fishes' Tails.

By E. T. Newton, F.G.S.*

Read March 21, 1882,

Plate III.

Part I.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TAIL OF A YOUNG SPRAT, AND COMPARISON

WITH OTHER RECENT FORMS.

Some years ago, when studying the osteology of the common Sprat
(Harenga sprattusj I was much interested in the structure of the
tail, which seemed tome to present peculiarities worthy of a careful
investigation. One of the youngest examples which could be ob-
tained was prepared and mounted in glycerine jelly. Drawings
of this having been carefully made, it was put on one side in the
hope of obtaining still younger specimens, so that, if possible, its
development might be worked out, and compared with the various
early stages of the Gasterosteus, the development of which had
been so ably investigated by Prof. Huxley. f Unfortunately I
have not been able to get any smaller and younger specimens ;
but it seemed to me that possibly the description of this preparation,
and its comparison with other forms, might be sufficiently interesting
to justify my bringing it before the Club.

Before commencing this description it will be well just to say a
few words on the forms of fishes' tails generally, for the terms which
have been used with regard to them do not appear to be clearly ap-
prehended by many persons.

In so far as the external form of fishes' tails are concerned
they present two main types, namely, — those in which the fleshy por-
tion of the body is continued upwards to a greater or less extent

* At a time when microscopical subjects are so freely admitted to the
publications of other than microscopical societies, no apology is necessary
for bringing before the Quekett Club a paper like the present, which, al-
though treating of macroscopic matters, is founded upon microscopic
work.

t " Quart. Journ. Micro. Sci." vol., vn., p. 33, 1859,

80 E. T. NEWTON ON FISHES' TAILS.

into the upper lobe of the tail ; while the lower lobe has no such
extension of the body into it, is often much smaller than the upper
part, and looks like a fin placed under the tail. This is termed a
heterocercal tail, and occurs in most sharks, in the sturgeon, and in
other forms. In the second form the upper and lower halves are
alike, and the fleshy termination of the body is as much below as
above the middle line. Such tails are called homocercal, and are
found in the ordinary bony fishes, such as salmon, cod, sprat, &c.

Judging from external form alone, therefore, fishes' tails are either
homocercal or heterocercal ; but when we come to examine the
foundations on which these tails are supported, that is their skeletal
structures, they are found to present differences which render it
necessary to modify these terms. The tail of a shark, such as a
dog-fish, is found to have a series of the vertebra running upwards
into the upper lobe and occupying the middle of the fleshy part,
while by far the larger portion of the tail-fin is placed below the
end of the vertebral column. The internal structure, therefore, in
this case agrees with the external, and the term heterocercal is
strictly applicable to it. The Lepidosteus, or bony pike, of N.
America, has the tail more nearly equal, but still the fleshy
portion of the body is seen to be directed upwards, and the vertebral
column is found to be directed upwards also (PI. Ill, fig. 4.) So that
this tail is really heterocercal, though apparently much less so than
the shark's.

If, now, we take one of the ordinary homocercal fishes, we shall
find a very different structure. The stickleback has an externally
homocercal tail, the fleshy body terminating in an equally rounded
end, on which the fin rays are symmetrically disposed. Internally
the vertebral column seems to end in the middle of the tail, fig. 2,
and to have attached to it two broad triangular plates, on which the
fin-rays are so disposed as to form a tail apparently as much above
as below the end of the spinal column. But this appearance is
delusive. It had long been known that in the salmon embryo the
tail became turned upwards as in the heterocercal fishes, but it was
supposed to become equal in the adult. Prof. Huxley, in 1859 (loc.
cit.), worked out the development of the stickleback's tail, and has
shown us that the apparent homocercality of the adult is a secondary
development, and that the tail is really heterocercal. At an early
stage the end of the notochord becomes strongly bent upwards, and
below it two triangular j^lates appear, upon which the fin rays are

E. T. NEWTON ON FISHES' TAILS. Si

supported. As ossification proceeds the vertebra? become segmented
off, but that part of the notochord which turns upwards becomes
gradually enclosed in a bony sheath, and in the adult is seen lying
along the upper edge of the uppermost triangular bone, fig. 2, nch,
so that nearly the whole of the tail is attached to the under side of
the termination of the vertebral column. The tail of the stickleback
therefore, although externally homo cereal, is internally extremely
hetero cereal.

There is yet one other kind of fish tail to which attention must
be drawn — it is that which has both the external form and the in-
ternal structure arranged symmetrically with regard to the end of
the vertebral column. The Ceratodus of Australia has a tail of this
description. The notochord in this fish is never ossified, but pass-
ing directly backwards, ends in the middle of the tail, and the fin
rays are arranged as much above as below it.

When it became known that some of the externally homocercal
tails were really extremely heterocercal, it became necessary to make
some distinction between those which were really homocercal and
those which were only apparently so. Now as the term homocercal
has always been applied to those forms, chiefly Teleosteans, which
were externally equal, but had now been shown in many instances
not to be so internally, it was decided to retain the name for these,
and to call those forms diphycercal which were truly equal above and
below, internally and externally, as in the Ceratodus. And fishes'
tails are now generally divided into three groups as follows : —

1st, Diphycercal. Those tails in which the vertebral column or
notochord passes directly backwards, without turning upwards, and
divides the tail into equal upper and lower portions.

2nd, Heterocercal. Those which externally are seen to have the
end of the body turned upwards, and to a greater or less extent
passing into the upper part of the tail, and internally have the
vertebral column or notochord passing inwards in the same manner.

3rd, Homocercal. Those which externally appear to be as much
above as below the middle line of the body, but internally show the
end of the vertebral column turned upwards, and the larger part of
the tail placed below it.

There is another matter to which I must call attention before pro-
ceeding to describe the sprat's tail. The development of the flounder
(Pleuronectes) has been worked out by Prof. Alex. Agassiz,* and

* " Proc. Am. Acad. Sci.," vol. xiii., p. 117.

82 E. T. NEWTON ON FISHES* TAILS.

this enables us to approach the subject in a much more satisfactory
manner.

Prof. A. Agassiz traces the development through 12 stages (vide p.
83), and according to his observations — 1. A flounder (Pleuronectes)
just hatched has the notochord extending into the middle of the tail,
which is nearly equal above and below. This is the condition which
Prof. A. Agassiz calls the Leptocardial stage. 2. Shortly after the
end of the notochord is seen to make a bend upwards, becoming
slightly arched below. The very slightest trace of a division is seen
in the edge of the fin towards the extremity, and this increases in
the next stages. 3. Two plates of tissue are to be seen below the
notochord. The division between the embryonic and permanent
caudal fins becomes more distinct, and fin rays are to be seen. 4.
All the last-mentioned points become more distinct, and the tail is
distinctly bilobed. 5 — 9. The permanent tail becomes larger in pro-
portion to the embryonic caudal lobe, so that the former soon equals
and then surpasses the latter in size, and in stage 9 the em-
bryonic caudal is only seen as a little lobe on the top of the
permanent caudal. Internally the structures are essentially as in
stage 4, but have become more marked. 10. The last stage before
ossification ; the embryo caudal is almost gone ; the broad plates of
cartilage have assumed more of the form we have been familiar
with in the Gasterosteus. In stages 11 and 12 ossification has set
in, and the vertebral column has become divided into its component
vertebras, and eventually the upturned end of the notochord is en-
cased in the urostyle, as in the Gasterosteus.

The specimen of a young sprat's tail represented in Plate III, fig.
1 , includes the last four vertebras of the column with the representa-
tives of those which are turned upwards and the hypural appendages ;
but in the drawing all the fin-rays are omitted so as to render the re-
maining parts more distinct. The figure is enlarged about 25 times.
It will be noticed that these four vertebras decrease in size a little,
but only a little, as we trace them backwards. They each bear well-
developed, neural and haemal arches ; but while the upper arches are
about equally developed, the last two lower ones are enlarged and
flattened at their extremities. The fifth vertebra is much modified, and
commences the upward turn of the vertebral column, which, behind
this point, is directed upwards at a considerable angle. Behind the
fifth vertebra three or four ossified segments are to be traced. The
first of these (sixth from front) seems to form a definite vertebral cen-

E. T. NEWTON ON FISHES TAILS.

83

Various Stages in the Development op the Tail of the
Flounder. After Prof. Alex. Agissiz. — n, Notochord; in
Figs. 11 and 12 this is ossified to form the Urostyle; c,
Embryonic Caudal fin ; h, Hypural plates.

84 E. T. NEWTON ON FISHES' TAILS.

trum, but beyond this it is not quite certain whether the segmenta-
tion includes the bony parts as well as the notochord. The neural
arch of the fifth vertebra is broad, but not nearly so long as the one
preceding it (rca*). The haemal arch of the fifth vertebra is peculiarly
modified, and is reckoned as the first hypural plate (1). The basal por-
tion of this arch on each side is enlarged into a rounded head, which
fits into a corresponding depression of the underside of the vertebra
and forms what seems to be a definite joint. The main stem of this
bone on each side is flattened towards its outer extremity, where it
joins its fellow of the opposite side, and has much the form of the
preceding hasmal arch ; but towards its proximal part each limb of
the arch sends a broad plate forwards, and a process for muscular
attachment is seen upon its outer side. The main caudal
artery passes through this arch, and then seems to pass backwards
along the upper surface of the second hypural bone (2). From each
side of the fifth vertebra another bony process arises (sp. 1), which
jmsses backwards and upwards along the sides of the notochord as a
protective splint, and giving off a long plate-like process from its
upper and inner side, forms, with the corresponding bone of the
opposite side, a roof-like covering for the notochord. Two other
splint-like bones (sp. 2) partly overlap these processes, and being
lower down on the sides and somewhat more behind, still further pro-
tect the notochord. Beyond these a small double-curved bone is
seen (sp. 3) lying at the sides of the notochord, the latter, however,
being free for some distance beyond it. Only one of these bones is
seen in the preparation, but doubtless it is one of a pair, similar to
those seen in the carp's tail at the same place. Besides the modified
hasmal arch above mentioned (fig. 1, No. 1), it will be seen that there
are six other broad plates placed below the notochord. Taking No. 1
as the first hypural, it will be noticed that the second (2) is much
broader at its outer part, and forms a triangular plate ; but its
proximal part could not be traced into connection with the vertebral
column, although in the adult this connection does take place. The
third plate is narrower, and abuts upon the sixth vertebra of the
figure. The fourth plate is again triangular, and its proximal end
abuts upon the notochord. The outer and lower corner is not
ossified, but remains imperfect. At first I thought this was acci-
dental, but it seems to be constant, and to remain imperfect even in
the adult. The fifth, sixth, and seventh plates are gradually re-
duced in size, and become less triangular. The proximal part of

E. T. NEWTON ON FISHES* TAILS. 85

each of these hypural plates, excepting No. 2, is broad and hollowed,
but apparently not for the passage of vessels. Between the end of
the notochord and the neural spine of the last imperfect vertebra
there are three bones (ep.), which appear like neural spines, but
are not connected with any of the surrounding bones ; they cor-
respond with those in the Gasterosteus tail, called ejriuralsby Prof.
Huxley.

The tail of the adult sprat differs from that above described —
first, in the enlargement of the splints and protective processes of
the fifth vertebra, which now completely cover the notochord at its
sides ; secondly, in the covering up or obliteration of the bony ver-
tebral segments behind the fifth vertebra ; and thirdly, in the
hypural plate No. 2 becoming connected by bony tissue with the fifth
vertebra.

A comparison of the sprat's tail with those of the stickleback
and flounder shows that it differs from them in three most im-
portant particulars, namely, in the first place the notochord is
not ossified or enclosed in a long urostyle, but is only protected
at the sides by splint-like bones, beyond which it projects for a
considerable distance ; secondly, the upturned portion of the
notochord is segmented in an early stage ; and thirdly, in place of
the two hypural jjlates, the sprat has seven plates which bear the
tail fin-rays.

The tail of the salmon described by Kolliker* and also by
Bruchf agrees essentially with that of the sprat in all the three
points just mentioned. The greatest divergence from the sprat
form of tail which I have yet seen among the Teleostean fishes is
that of the cod and that of the eel.

In the specimen of an adult cod-fish tail which is now before me,
there are about 50 fin rays, and of these about 23 are placed above
the end of the notochord, and 27 below, so that the displacement
of the end of the notochord is only upwards for the space of
two fin rays, and at first the tail appears to be diphycercal ;
besides this, according to my reckoning, there is only one hypural
plate. Prof. Alex. Agassiz speaks of two hypurals in the embryo
cod ; but this difference is not one of facts, but of interpretation. The
hsemal arches become gradually enlarged, and assume the form of

* " Ueber das Ende der Wirbelsaiile der Ganoiden," &c, Leipzig, 1860.
t " Vergleichende Osteologie des Rlieinlachses " (Salino salar, L.). Mainz.
1861.

Journ. Q. M. C, Series II., No. 2. H

86 E. T. NEWTON ON FISHES* TAILS.

hypural plates. In counting the hypural bones in the stickleback,
sprat, carp, and flounder, I have regarded as the last haemal arch,
the hindermost one "which has a corresponding neural arch fully-
developed. The first bone beyond this I have called the first
hypural, its neural arch being short and modified. According to
this mode of reckoning, the cod has one hypural, the stickle-
back and flounder two, the sprat, carp, and salmon seven.

It is proposed now to glance at the different groups of fishes,
and see which of these forms of tails occur in each of them.

1. Pharyngobranchii. — This group includes but one form, the
Amphioxus lanceolatus ; in it the notochord is persistent, and
ends in a point in the middle of the tail. It agrees therefore with
the earliest stage of the flounder noticed by Prof. A. Agassiz, and
is diphycercal.

2. Marsipobranchii. — The lampreys and hags which compose
this group, although much higher in the scale in other respects,
agree with the Amphioxus in having a persistent notochord, which
terminates in a point in the middle of the tail-fin. These fishes
therefore, likewise agree with stage 1 of the flounder, and are
diphy cereal.

3. Dipnoi. — Although the fishes of this group, Lepidosiren,
Protopterus, and Ceratodus, are so highly developed in many
points of their structure, yet in the form of their tails they are
very lowly ; and consequently, in the present instance, are taken early
in the series, although mostly placed as the highest group of the
fishes, because they show affinity with the Amphibia in having
lungs as well as gills. All these fishes have the notochord per-
sistent, and ending in the middle of the tail without turning up-
wards. They are diphycercal, like groups 1 and 2, and agree with
stage 1 of the flounder.

4. Elasmobranchii. — The sharks, rays, and chima?ra which
constitute this group exhibit much diversity as to the extent of
ossification of the vertebral column. In some the notochord is
persistent, in others the vertebrae are fully ossified ; there is like-
wise much diversity in the form of the tail. Concerning this
group Prof. Huxley says :* — " The terminal part of the notochord
is never enclosed within a continuous bony sheath or urostyle. The
extremity of the vertebral column is generally bent up . . .
Elasmobranchs with tails of this conformation are truly

* " Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals, 1871," p. 127.

E. T. NEWTON ON FISHES' TAILS. 87

heterocercal. The monkfish (Squatina) and many other Elasmo-
branchii are more diphycercal than heterocercal."

Among the Elasmobranchs therefore, we have forms of tails
varying from stage 1 to stage 3 of the flounder. It is worthy of
remark that in this group we never find the homocercal form, for
to whatever extent the end of the column may be bent up, hypural
plates are never developed.

5. Ganoidei. — The recent Ganoids may be divided into two
groups, the one including the sturgeon (Acipenser), Spatularia,
and Scapirliynclius, the second including Lepidosteus, Potypterus,
and Amia.

(a) In the first group the tails are all heterocercal, the per-
sistent notochord extending into the fleshy upwardly directed
termination of the body, while the tail-fin is placed almost wholly
below it. The tails therefore of these are like the heterocercal
Elasmobranchs, and agree with the heterocercal condition of the
flounder embryo. Stage 3.

(b) In the second group of Ganoids we find great diversity of
tail development. In all the recent forms the vertebral column
consists of well-developed bone, and it is only the extreme
end of the notochord which remains unossified. Polypterus
has the tail externally as nearly as possible alike above and below
the middle line, and is not unlike the tail of the Ceratodus. In-
ternally, however, it is found that the vertebras become smaller and
smaller, and terminate in a cartilaginous style slightly turned up-
wards, with the extremity turned down again. One or two some-
what enlarged haemal spines represent hypural bones, and the fin
rays are arranged nearly equally above and below ; but on counting
them it is found that while there are only 8 fin rays above, there
are 14 below the termination of the notochord. This tail therefore
may be regarded as between the diphycercal and the heterocercal
forms, or it may be a homocercal of the cod-fish type, representing in
a well-ossified condition, the earliest stage of the upward turning of
the tail in the embryo flounder. Lepidosteus has its tail ex-
ternally distinctly heterocercal, although not so markedly so as is
the shark's and sturgeon's. The vertebral column, which is well
ossified, passes gradually upwards, the vertebras decreasing in size,
and terminates in a long cartilaginous style in the upper edge of
the tail fin. The tail, therefore, is wholly below the vertebral
column, and is supported by numerous inferior vertebral arches (14

88 E. T. NEWTON ON FISHES' TAILS.

or 15), which gradually decrease in size as we trace them back-
wards. This tail is consequently truly heterocercal, although less
obviously so externally than in some other forms. It corresponds
to the period of the embryo flounder, stage 7, but with the
embryonic caudal fin obliterated. The Amia has the fleshy lobe
of the tail externally very nearly equal above and below the middle
line, but internally the ossified vertebral column is more suddenly
bent upwards than it is in Lepidosteus, and is continued by a
cartilaginous style into the uppermost border of the tail, so that
the latter is almost wholly below the vertebral column. The
haemal arches form such a regularly continuous series that one can-
not say definitely which should be regarded as hypural plates.
About 16 or 17 of the hsemal spines support the tail fin-rays, and
the terminal 8 have no corresponding neural arches. This tail
makes a much nearer approach to the homocercal than any we
have yet considered, the outer form showing but little inequality ;
but still there is a slight preponderance of the upper part of the
fleshy portion. It seems to me, therefore, to represent a somewhat
later stage of development than the Lepidosteus, but nevertheless to
be a truly heterocercal tail. Stage 10.

6. Teleostei. — All the members of this group of the bony fishes
appear to have homocercal tails, and it is generally said to be
one of the characteristics of the Teleostei. But, as we have already
seen, there is considerable variation in the structure, although this
variation may be within the limits of the homocercal group.

The tail of the eel seems to be the nearest approach to the
diphycercal form.

The variation in the structure, as already pointed out, chiefly
concerns the number of hypural bones developed, there being
but one hypural in the cod, two in the stickleback, and seven in
the sprat.

The homocercal tails also differ in the manner in which the up-
turned end of the vertebral column is ossified. The stickleback
has this portion of the notochord ossified in one piece, and in the
adult there is no part of the notochord unossified. In the sprat,
four or five bony segments are to be distinguished at one stage of
development, but the end of the notochord is never altogether
ossified. The salmon's tail has likewise several distinct vertebral
segments in the upturned portion, and, according to Bruch's figure
(loc. cit.), the unossified part of the notochord shows transverse
lines, indicative of segmentation.

R. T. NEWTON ON FISHES* TAILS. 89

The homocercal tail is doubtless the most highly developed, that
is the most specialized, form to be found among the class of fishes ;
and taking the class as a whole, there seems to be a gradual de-
velopment traceable from the lowest to the highest. But if we en-
deavour to arrange the fishes in a linear series, we find that it
cannot be done, and this is more especially the case when the whole
organization of each group is considered.

To take perhaps the most remarkable instance, the Dipnoi.
These fishes, although much below the Teleostei, in the form of the
tail and structure of the skeleton generally, yet in the possession of
lungs and other characters they are much above them. It is
obvious, therefore, that the Teleostei are not derived from the
Dipnoi, nor vice versa ; the relationship which exists between the
different groups of recent fishes is not one of direct descent the one
from the other, but that of common parentage, not one line of
descent, but many. And this leads us to inquire into the history of
fishes in past times, and more especially to see what information can
be gained from the study of fossil fishes' tails.

Part II.

COMPARISON OF RECENT WITH FOSSIL FISHES* TAILS.

The possibility of a parallelism between the development of the
tail of a high-class fish of the present day and the development of
fishes' tails during geological times, has not escaped the notice of
those astute observers who have already studied this matter. The
history of the different opinions on this subject is fully stated by
Profs. Huxley and A. Agassiz (loc. cit.), and it will only be necessary
now to mention the more prominent points of this discussion. MM.
Agassiz and Vogt were of opinion that such a parallelism did exist,
because they were under the impression that the tail of the salmon,
which in a young condition is heterocercal, became in the adult truly
homocercal (that is, diphycercal as we now understand it) and seeing
that among the older fossil fishes the heterocercal tail predominated,
and that the homocercal appeared later and superseded it, there
seemed to be a kind of parallel development. M. Van Beneden,
finding that the earliest condition of the Plagiostomes was diphy-
cercal, came to just the opposite conclusion, because, for such a
parallelism to exist, the oldest forms ought to have been diphycercal,
whereas they were heterocercal. Prof. Huxley was also of opinion
that such a parallelism could not be traced, because he had shown
that the apparently homocercal fishes were really only heterocercal

90 E. T. NEWTON ON FISHES* TAILS.

tails disguised. Prof. Alex. Agassiz, having worked out the de-
velopment of some of the Teleostean fishes, is led to the conclusion
that although MM. Agassiz and Vogt were mistaken as to 'their
facts, yet, in his opinion, their generalization was in the main correct.
He points out that, among the Devonian fishes, there are truly
diphycercal tails, and every intermediate stage between this and
the heterocercal form, and following on into the Secondary rocks, he
traces through several forms the gradual equalizing of the tail lobes,
and the gradual approach to an externally homocercal tail.

While accepting the facts brought forward by Prof. A. Agassiz, I
cannot feel that this parallelism is altogether satisfactory. For
although the facts probably indicate a gradual advance in the
structure of the tail of Ganoid fishes, yet it must be borne in mind
that it is only in the Ganoid group, and besides this it must be re-
membered that, in the Devonian rocks, we find Ganoid fishes, not of
the lowest type only, but of every form, from the diphycercal to the
heterocercal, that is to say, of just those forms which are found among
Ganoids living at the present day. And it might be equally well
argued that, so far as we have any evidence, these types have been
persistent through all time. And still further, the oldest known
fishes' tail, that of Cephalaspis, from the Upper Ludlow rocks, is
heterocercal. On the other hand, it is true that some of the tails
of Ganoids in the Secondary rocks become more nearly homocercal
than any that are to be found in the Palaeozoic strata. It would be
very interesting to know whether these highest forms of Ganoids
have their internal skeletal structure more like the Teleostean homo-
cercal tails or not. In other words, we want to know whether these
Secondary Ganoids were really advancing towards the Teleostei, or
whether they were only more advanced on their own particular lines
of development.

Some fresh points of interest are to be found by taking each group
of fishes and tracing the different forms of tails which they present
in the various geological formations.

Representatives of the two lowest groups of fishes, the Pharyn-
gobranchii and the Marsipobranchii, we cannot expect to find
fossil, inasmuch as they have no hard parts which are likely to be pre-
served. The tooth-like fossils from Silurian rocks, which have been
called Conodonts, are probably not parts of fishes allied to the lam-
preys, as they were at one time thought to be, but remains of annelids.

Dipnoi. — This group of fishes is known to us for the first time

E. T. NEWTON ON FISHEs' TAILS. 91

in the Devonian rocks, where it is represented by the genera Dlp-
terus and Conchodus. The tail of Dipterus is heterocercal, and
resembles stage 4 or 5 in the development of the flounder. Ctenodus,
from the Coal Measures, probably belongs to this group, but its tail
is not known. Teeth of Ceratodus have been found in the Trias and
Oolite, but from that time nothing more is known of this group
of fishes until the present day, and now we find it represented by
Lepidosiren, Protopterus, and Ceratodus, all these three having
diphycercal tails. Looked at, therefore, in the light of embryological
development, the Devonian Dipterus is more highly developed than
its recent representatives.

Elasmobranchii. — This group of the sharks and rays is first
found fossil in the Upper Ludlow Rocks, where it is represented by
the spiny defences called Onchus, but no other part of the fish is
known. From the Ludlow onwards to the present day, teeth and
spines of sharks are met with in all marine deposits, but the forms
of their bodies are unknown, so that we cannot say what kind of
tail they had.

Ganoidei. — By far the larger number of the fishes from the
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic formations belong to this group, and they
present so many different forms that it has been found necessary to
divide it into seven sub-orders, four of which have living representa-
tives, and the others are extinct. It will be well to take each group
separately.

1. Amiadce, The Amia is the only form in this sub-order, and is
not found fossilized.

2. Lepidosteidce. Most of the genera from the Devonian and
Carboniferous Rocks, which were at one time placed in this family,
are now referred by Dr. Traquair to the Palceoniscidte, a sub-division
of the Acipenseroidei {inde Pala3ontographical Society, 1877).

It is in the Secondary Rocks that the Lepidosteidas have their
greatest development, and present us with the widest variety of
form, for although we find no diphycercal tail, and the extreme hete-
rocercal is the lowest type, yet, on the other hand, we get the
highest type known among the Ganoids, so far as we can judge by
outward appearance, for several genera have apparently homocercal
tails.

Eugnathus, from the Lias, and Ophiopsis, from the Purbeck, show
the lowest type of tail in the Secondary Rocks ; they are heterocercal,
and agree with stage 4 or 5 of the flounder.

92 E, T. NEWTON ON FISHES' TAILS.

JEchmodus, Semionotus, and Pholidophorus, from the Lias, Lepi-
dotus, which is found from the Lias to the Wealden, and Histio-
notus, from the Purbeck, all have tails approaching that of Lepi-
dosteus, and agreeing with stage 5. The Dapedius, from the Lias,
makes even a nearer approach to homocercality stage 5 or 7 ; but,
according to Agassiz' restoration,* it is in the Pachycormns from the
Lias, the Sauropsis from the Oolite, and the Leptolepis, which is
found from the Lias to the Purbeck, that we see the highest de-
velopment of the Ganoid tail, for externally they are just as much
homocercal as any Teleostean fish. We have no evidence to show
that this is really identical with the Teleostean homocercality, and I
think future research will prove that the Ganoid homocercality
differs from that of the Teleostean. At present they must be re-
garded as stage 9 or 11 of the flounders' development.

3. Crossopterigidce. There is much variation in the tails of these
fishes, even among those which are found in the Devonian Rocks.
Thus : — The genera Glyptolcemus and Glyptopomus having the tail
straight and equal above and below, seem to resemble the earliest
condition of the embryo, stage 1 .

Holoptychius and Gyroptychius may be taken to represent stage 2,
as they have a slight upward tendency.

Glyptolepis has a greater development of the lower caudal lobe,
and represents the stage 3.

Diplopterus has a distinct heterocercal tail, with a well-developed
lower lole, and would represent stage 4 or 5.

Tristichopterus has a most remarkable tail. Its upper and lower
lobes are nearly equal, but the end of the body extends upwards
and backwards through this, so as to form another smaller lobe
within the other two. This tail is heterocercal, and would repre-
sent stage 6 or 7.

In the Coal Measures the Crossopterigidas are found represented
by Holoptychius and Megulichthys, the former resembling stage 2,
while Megalichihys is most like stage 3.

The Ccelacanthini, a peculiar group of the Crossopterigida?,
closely allied to the Dipnoi, are represented in the Coal Measure by
Ccelacanthus, and in the Mesozoic Rocks by Undina, Bolophagus,
arid Macropoma, in all of which the notochord was unossified and the
tail diphycercal, stage 1. No Crossopterigian is known in Tertiary
strata, but at the present day it is represented by Polyptems

* " Poissons Fossiles," vol. L pis. A to G. 1833-43.

E. T. NEWTON ON FISHES* TAILS. 93

and Calamoichthys of N. African rivers, the tail of the former being
apparently diphycercal, but internally slightly upturned, much as in
the cod-fish.

4. Acipenseroidei. This group, which has been established by
Dr. Traquair (Palseontographical Society, 1877), to include the
recent Chondrosteidce and certain fossil forms, is represented in the
Devonian Rocks by Cheirolepis ; and in the Coal Measures, Permian,
Trias and Lias, by such genera as Palaoniscus, Amhlypterus and
Pygopterns, all of which have tails resembling stage 4 or 5. The
Chondrosteidce are represented in the Lias by Chondrosteus, which
has a persistent notochord and a strongly heterocercal tail, like its
recent representatives the sturgeon, Spatularia, and Scapirhynchus.
Stage 3. The sturgeon is known from the London Clay.

5. Cephalaspidce. These fishes, characterized by having their
heads covered by a continuous shield, are the oldest representatives
of the class Pisces, The Cephalaspis, from the Upper Ludlow, has
a heterocercal tail representing stage 3. The Pteraspis, from the
Lower Ludlow, is the earliest fish yet found, and so far as known
the tail was heterocercal.

6. Placodermi. This is another remarkable group of fishes, only
known in the Devonian and Carboniferous strata. One of these,
Coccosteus, had a truly diphycercal tail, and persistent notochord,
and possibly the others were the same. Stage 1.

7. Acanthodidce. This, like the last group, is confined to the
Devonian and Carboniferous rocks. These fish have the body
covered with shagreen, and have long spines to the dorsal, pectoral
and ventral fins. Their tails are strongly heterocercal and represent
stage 4.

Taking the Ganoids as a whole, we see that their earliest re^u'e-
sentatives were heterocercal, Cephalaspis, &c, but in the oldest beds
where they occur in any numbers, we find every form of tail, from
the diphycercal, as in Coccosteus and Glyptolajmus, to the extremely
heterocercal, as in Tristichopterus, while, as M. Alex. Agassiz
truly states, we have no such form of tail as that of Lepidosteus,
which makes a very close approach to the externally homocercal
form, until we get to the Secondary strata, where Lepidotus and
Pachycormus are perhajDs the most highly developed forms, and
judging from M. Agassiz's restorations, had homocercal tails.

Teleostei. The Teleostei are not certainly met with in the fossil
state until we get up as far as the Cretaceous Rocks, but there we

94 E. T. NEWTON ON FISHES' TAILS.

find highly specialized forms, some being representatives of living
genera and having their tails formed on precisely the same plan as
those which we call homo-cereal among recent Teleostei. It is not
proposed to carry these comparisons any further at present, but it
is hoped that the accompanying table (p. 96), which shows some of
the facts above referred to, will help to put them in a clearer light.
This study of the fossil forms in the light of development leads
us to the following conclusions : —

1. The Dipnoi having its earliest representative Dipterus, with
a heterocercal tail, and its recent examples with diphycercal tails,
shows a retrogression and not an advance.

2. The Elasmobranchii have probably remained much the same
through all time since their first appearance in the Ludlow to the
present day.

3. The Ganoidei, in their earliest known representative, Cepha-
laspis, were heterocercal, and therefore somewhat advanced, while
in the Devonian Rocks we have all the forms of tails which are now
living, with the exception possibly of the Amia, and might, there-
fore, be held to show a persistence of type through time, and not
an advance.

On the other hand, although heterocercal tails are found in these
older rocks, yet the highest type is more embryonic than many that
are met with in the Secondary strata, where forms occur as high, or
even higher than, those of the present day. And consequently the
Ganoids of the Secondary strata are of a higher type than those of
the Primary rocks. But with regard to the Secondary Ganoids, it
must be remembered that we do not here, any more than in the
older formations, find a gradual advance from the forms of the
lowest Secondary Rocks to the highest ; for in the Lias we have
fishes with tails as highly organized as we find in the Purbecks,
and these agreeing as closely as possible with recent forms. So that
we cannot say the Ganoids have advanced in structure between the
Lias and the present day.

4. Teleostei, when first we recognise them with certainty, in the
later Cretaceous rocks, they have an organization as high, so far
as we can tell, as any living representative of the group.

It is a remarkable fact that the Teleostei are first known at the
time when the Ganoids are declining, and one is naturally led to ask
whether the one has descended from the other. At present this cannot
be answered ; but it seems quite possible, so far as the form of the

•n. Q "M. C.

/oi.ipi.m

ruh

E.T.1T. del.

5.

"Mit ' s-.sc.

E. T. NEWTON ON FISHES' TAILS. 95

tail is concerned, that the Teleostei may have so descended, for it is
quite conceivable that a form of tail like that of Lepidosteus might,
with comparatively little change, become such a homocercal form as
we get in the sprat. If the Teleostei have been thus evolved, the
links of the chain connecting the two groups are still unknown.

Before these problems can be solved there is much work to be
done both in working out the structure of fossil forms and also
in the investigation of the embryology of recent Teleostean and
other fishes.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III.

Fig. 1. — Tail of a young Sprat (Harenga sprattus), with the four preced-
ing vertebrae ; enlarged about 25 diameters. The fin rays are
omitted for the sake of clearness, na, neural arches; na*,
modified neural arch ; ha, haemal arches ; 1 to 7, series of 7
hypural bones, sp. 1, one of a pair of splint-like processes
arising from the first upwardly directed vertebra, and protecting
part of the unossified notochord ; sp. 2, sp. 3, two other splint-
like bones, which, with corresponding bones on the opposite
side, still further protect the notochord ; nch, the unossified
notochord, extending beyond the hypural bones ; ep, epiurals; these
appear to be serially homologous, with the spines of the neural
arches, but are incomplete below.

Fig. 2. — Tail of a Stickleback (G aster osteus), enlarged, after Huxley.
Only a portion of the fin-rays are represented. 1, 2, hypural
bones ; nch, notochord ossified and fixed to the border of the
uppermost hypural bone.

Fig. 3. — Central portion of the tail of a Codfish (Gadus morrhua),
natural size, na, two hindermost neural arches ; ha, two hinder-
most haemal arches ; 1, the single hypural bone ; nch, the ossified
notochord firmly attached to the upper border of the hypural bone.

Fig. 4. — Tail of the Bony Pike {Lepidosteus), after Kolliker, reduced :
nch, notochord; in front of this are shown a series of vertebrae,
with their neural and haemal arches, all of which become smaller
as they are traced backwards.

Fig. 5. — Tail of Sturgeon (^1 cipenser), much reduced, after Agassiz. nch,
notochord ; above and below this are shown the large series of
cartilages representing the neural and haemal arches.

96

TABLE SHOWING THE DEVELOPMENT

The figures indicate, as nearly as possible, the stage in the development

Pharyngo-
branchii.

Marsipo-
branchii

Dipnoi.

Elasmo-
branchii.

Ganoidei.

A-

Acantlwdidcs.

Placodermi.

Recent

Amphioxus,
1

Petro- Ceratodus, 1
myzon, 1 Lepidosiren,l

Various
Sharks, 1 to 3

...

■ • i

Tertiary ...

• i •

. i ■

• i •

Larnna, &c. ...

• • •

■ ■ *

Creta- "i

CEOUS. J

• i •

■ • §

• • •

1 1 •

• * •

i • *

Wealden ...

* • •

...

• «•

■ • •

• • t

• • ■

PURBECK ...

« t •

• t •

• i •

■ * •

• t •

i • •

Oolite

t • •

jCeratodus ...

■ ■ •

• i •

• t 4

Lias

• • •

i ■ i

• • •

Hybodus

• i •

• • •

Eh.etic & \
Trias J

• • *

• ••

Ceratodus ...

Hybodus

• • •

■ ■ *

Permian ...

• ■ •

■ • i

• ■ •

■ ••

• • t

f

* • *

Carboni- "1
ferous. j

• • •

• • •

Ctenodus ...

Gyracanthus

Acanthodes,4

« • «

Devonian...

i • •

• i •

Dipterus, 4
or 5

• • •

Cheiracan-
thns, 4
Diplacanthus,

4

Coccosteus, 1
Pterichthys

Upper 1
Ludlow j

• • •

• ■ > i ti

Onchus

...

•••

Lower 1
Ludlow

••• ill •••

• i •

...

...

OF FISHES' TAILS IN PAST TIMES.

of the Flounder's tail with which each form most nearly agrees.

«7

Ganoidei.

Teleostei.

Cephal- j Acipenser-
aspidce, oidei.

Crossopterigida.

Ccelacanthini.

Lepidosteidcs.

N

Amiadee,

• • •

Acipenser, 3

Polypterus, 2

• ■ •

Lepidosteus, 7

Amia, 10

Perca, &c, 12

• • •

Acipenser, 3

• • •

• • •

Lepidosteus, 7

• ■ •

Many
forms, 12

• ■ •

• i •

• • •

Macropoma, 1

■ •«

t » •

Beryx, 12

■ • »

• • t

i • ■

• ••

Lepidotus, 5

• • •

i • •

• • »

• t •

• ••

■ • I

Ophiopsis, 4

Histionotus, 5

Leptolepis, 9

or 11

...

• • »

» • ■

t • •

• * •

■ • ■

Sauropsis, 9
or 11

»• i

Thrissops,

12?

• t •

Chondros-
teus, 3

1*1

Holophagus, 1

Eugnathus, 4
or 5
iEchmodus, 5
Dapedius, 5 or 7
Pachycormas, 9
or 11

•••

• • •

• • ■

t • •

• ••

• ••

Dipteronotus, 5

■ • *

• • •

• • •

Pala3oniscus,4
or 5

< • »

»t*

i * •

• » •

i ■ •

•••

Ambly-
pterus, 4
Pygopterus, 4

Holoptychius, 2
Megalichthys, 3

Ccelacanthus,
1

« • •

• ■ i

»•■

• • •

Cheirolepis, 5

Glyptolaemus, 1
Gyroptychius, 2
Glyptolepis, 3
Oiplopterus, 4
Tristichopterus,
6 or 7

• • «

• • *

* * ■

iai

Cephal-
aspis, 3

■ * •

■ • •

• * t

■ • •

• • •

• • •

Pteraspis

» • >

...

...

• • •

98

PROCEEDINGS.

January 13th, 1882. — Conversational Meeting.
The following objects were exhibited : —

Corethra plurnicornis, shown in a new grow-")

ing slide for constant observation )

Cuticle of Apple-leaf, polarized, showing)

the hairs &c. ... ... ... )

Tracheee of Dytiscus marginalis
PolysipTionia fibrata (marine alga) in fruit,
showing spores in various stages of de-
velopment
Nauplius of Lepas, showing Diatoms in

stomach; from H.M.S. Challenger dredgin
Sting of Scorpion
Anamesite Lava from JEtna, containing

crystals of Zeolite
Crystals of native Silver...
Volvox globator, shown by green polarized^
light ... ... ... ... )

Cepheus occellatus (new species) showing

the eye-like form of the stigmata
Leaf of Pi stia stratiotes ... ...

Asterionella formosa ... ... ,,,

Transverse section of stem of Misletoe")
double stained ... ... • )

Attendance — Members, 56 ; Visitors, 6.

• • •

"}

The President.

Mr. F. W. Andrew.
Mr. W. R. Browne.

Mr. T. H. Buffham.

Mr. H. G. Glasspoole.

Mr. H. R. Gregory.
Mr. H. Hensoldt.

Dr. Matthews.

>j

>>

Mr. A. D. Michael.

Mr. H. Morland.
Mr. G. Sturt.

Mr. J. Woollett.

January 27th, 1882. — Ordinary Meeting.

T. Charters White, Esq., M.R.C.S., &c, President, in the

Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
The Rev. Thos. R. Jones, M.A., was balloted for and duly elected a mem-
ber of the Club.

The following donations and purchases were announced : —

f Proceedings of the Royal Society " ... from the Society.

" Journal of the Linnean Society"...

j>

Mr. T. C. White.

99

" Proceedings of the Epping Forest Natural") ^ Qm ^ Q Q ubj

History Club" ... ... )

" Proceedings of the Belgian Microscopical") Society

Society" ... ... ... )

"Science Gossip" ... ... ... „ „ Publisher.

" The Analyst " ... ... ... ... ,, „ „

" The Northern Microscopist " ... ... „ ,, ,,

" The American Monthly Microscopical") . exc k an cre

Journal" ... ... ... )

« Handbook of the Wild Silks of India " } fr A ™ ^ e Sc | ence , aud

) Art Department.

" Annals of Natural History " ... ... purchased.

"Dr. Cooke's Fresh Water Algae" ... „

Three Slides ... ... ... ... from the President.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to the donors.

Mr. E. T. Newton exhibited and described a new form of microtome,
devised by Professor Miall.

The President was sure that the members would heartily join in a vote
of thanks to Mr. Newton for bringing this apparatus before them. Many
scientific men were not very wealthy, and could ill afford to purchase
elaborate and costly section machines. Whatever therefore could be done
to effect economy without impairing efficiency, was very desirable. A
vote of thanks was put and carried unanimously.

Mr. J. W. Groves said he must thank Mr. Newton for bringing up a
machine that seemed likely to be useful for tolerably thin sections ; he
thought, however, that very thin sections would be likely to get cut wedge-
shaped. He also thought that there was an objection to the top plate
being of brass, because the razor would be apt to dig into it in the act of
cutting ; for this reason he thought a glass plate would be much better.

Mr. Newton said that practically the first-mentioned difficulty did not
arise, because they must cut about 30 sections before getting the whole of
the error. He hardly supposed anyone would try to cut sections ^o^o °f
an inch in thickness with such a machine, although it could be done.

Mr. Hailes said that the tendency to the wedge shape would not arise if
the plate was screwed on the thread and faced up in the lathe ; it would
then be practically true.

Mr. J. G. Waller read a paper on " Sand."

Mr. M. Hawkins Johnson in reply to the President, said he understood
the question before them to be, " How was it to be accounted for that
sand contained such a great quantity of quartz but so little flint ? " He
confessed that he did not know much about it, but perhaps he might specu-
late a little. If a number of chalk pebbles were thrown together en a
beach by the action of the waves, they would be found to collide with
much less force than they would if thrown in the air; the amount of force
exerted upon each was very small, and they might rather be said to roll
together. The result of a blow upon a flint would be to produce a conical
fissure, and when a number of these were made, small scaly pieces got

100

broken off iu just the condition to be dissolved. On the granite hills they
would find masses of debris along the roads and watercourses which looked
like ground rice ; this was the quartz which had been left by the rain after
the mica and felspar had been washed out. There occurred to him a
notable instance of sand which was not quartz, and that was the sand from
the River Parrot, of which what were called Bath bricks were made. This
sand contained a great deal of matter of very much the same character as
flint, to which the peculiar sharpness and cutting property of the material
was due ; it was not exactly flint ; probably it was chert.

The President said Mr. Waller had referred to the use made by small
animals of the grains of quartz ; he should like to ask if it was found that
the arenaceous Foraminifera selected quartz in the same way ?

Mr. E. T. Newton said they were much indebted to Mr. Waller for bring-
ing this subject forward. There were one or two things in connection with
it w T hich he thought were not sufficiently noticed in books, Many people
were not aware that flint was so soluble as it was. Quartz was very much
harder and more durable, so that under the action of water and weather the
flint disappeared but the quartz did not, and so, as the quartz was likely
to stay and the flint to dissolve away, in course of time only the quartz was
left. It should be remembered too, that in earlier times England was not
a separate island ; the North Sea was at that time probably an estuary ;
and the climate being glacial, vast quantities of debris were doubtless
brought down and deposited. As to the small creatures mentioned as
having their cases composed only of quartz grains, of course that would
necessarily follow from the fact of their not being able to get anything
else.

Mr. Michael said it struck him in the first place that the extreme ease
with which flint could be broken up might have something to do with the
matter. Some years ago when silica was wanted for glazing china, it was
obtained by heating flint and dropping it into water ; it could be then
pounded up quite easily, and formed a colloid with water. Another point
was, if the sand beaches were to be attributed to the attrition of the
granite, it was a singular fact that sand was so deficient in granite districts.
Such was the case, the beach on the granite coasts consisting almost
entirely of fine powdered shells, the deposit being in some parts 30ft.
deep. It was so in Cornwall, and he believed it w 7 as so too in the granite
districts of the Highlands and the Isle of Arran, where, though the
powdered granite was used for road making, there was very little sand.

Mr. M. Hawkins Johnson said that though not exactly apropos of the
paper, he might mention that the probability was that where the action of
the sea was sufficiently violent to produce granite cliffs it would no doubt
be sufficiently so to wash away the detritus. An instance occurred to him
in the case of two rivers in the north of Scotland, the Spey and the Find-
horn ; both of these brought down granite detritus, and there was in that
district an immense quantity of sand ; but the sea there was not encroach-
ing as in some other portions of the coast. Mr. Johnson then showed by
means of a diagram drawn upon the board that the original construction of

101

the flint being organic the conditions of its structure would materially aid
in its disintegration.

Dr. Matthevvs mentioned the circumstance that Wedgewood saw a farrier
drop hot flints into water in order to be able afterwards to powder them,
and that this was the origin of their use in china making ; also that simple
exposure to the weather was all that was required to disintegrate
granite, the result being the formation of china clay. He should like to
ask what was the chemical difference between flint and quartz, seeing that
quartz would polarize and flint wo aid not ?

Mr. Hawkins Johnson said it was not strictly correct to say that flint did
not polarize ; glass and other colloids would not, but flint itself would, that
was if it wa3 examined with cros3el prisms, it would restore the light ; but
it would not show colour as quartz did. Organic silica, such as sponge
spicules, did not polarize.

Mr. Waller said that when he made use of the term " polarize," he meant to
express the difference which there was between the two substances — quartz
giving those brilliant colours which they were so well acquainted with ; he
had mentioned, however, that flint was susceptible to polarized light. The
matter was one which he thought wanted more study, as there were other
kinds of silex which certainly did polarize, but which did not belong to the
chalk flints, and which could not be classed with the quartz.

The thanks of the meeting were unanimously voted to Mr. Waller for his
paper.

The proceedings terminated with the usual Conversazione, at which the

following objects were exhibited . —

Hipperio acid in arabin ... ^ ... ) the p resident#

Bichromate of potassium in arabin ... j

Cuticle of Lavender leaf, stained, showing^ ,, « w . ,

. ' ° > Mr. F. W. Andrew.

stellate and branched hairs ... )

Fangs of Centipede, showing tuberculated| ^ ^ E Freeman

poison glands... ... ... j

Foraminiferafrom Teneriffe ... ... Mr. H. F. Hailes.

Lophopus cystallinus, from Epping Forest ... Mr. J. D. Hardy.
Nelson's Flaked Gelatine, polarized ... Mr. T. S. Morten.

Eyes of a My gale, a reputed bird-catching")

spider ... ... ... )

Attendance — Members, 55 ; Visitors, 5.

February 10th, 1882.— Conversational Meeting.

The following objects were exhibited : —

Larva of Corethra plumicornis, ^ inch objec- - ) q^v, p -a f
tive ... ... ... ... )

Section of Oat ... ... ... ... Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Section of shell of Pinna ing ens ... ... Mr. W. R. Browne.

My mar pulchellus, female, the Battledore-") -, _ _, ,

winged Fly ... j

Journ. Q. M. C, Series II., No. 2. i

102

Foraminifera from Challenger dredgings ... Mr. H.

Conochilus volvox ... ... ... Mr. J.

Leaf of Listera ovata, stained ... ... Mr. H.

Pollen of Lapergia ... ... ... Mr. T.

Parasite of the Spanish Donkey ... ... „

Plewosigma formosum, showing sieve-like')

structure X 870 diam. ; £ inch objective > Mr. E.

and Lieberkiihn ... ... J

Arachnoidiscus omatus, in situ on decalcified")

Coralline ... ... ... )

Flea of Mouse, Pidex musculi ... ... Mr. J.

Attendance — Members, 49; Visitors, 6.

F. Hailes.
D. Hardy.
Morland.
S. Morten.

M. Nelson.

Mr. B. W. Priest.
Woollett.

'}

>»

the Publisher.

February 24th, 1882. — Ordinary Meeting.

T. Charters White, Esq., M.R.C.S., &c, President, in the

Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
Mr. H. I. Bound, Mr. J. N. Fitch, Mr. L. Greening, and Mr. J. H. Hard-
ing, were balloted for, and duly elected members of the Club.

The following additions to the Library Cabinet and Album were an-
nounced, and the thanks of the meeting voted to the respective donors : —
" Proceedings of the Royal Society''... ... from the Society.

" Journal of the Linnean Society " ... ... „ T.C.White.

„ ,, Royal Microscopical Society " ,, the Society.

" Proceedings of the Belgian Microscopical"

Society"
" Science Gossip " ... ... ... ,,

"The Analyst" ... ... ... ... „

" The Northern Microscopist " ... ... „

Dr. Braithwaite's " British Moss-flora," Part V. „
" The American Naturalist "

„ ,, Monthly Microscopical

Journal"
" Grevillea" ... ... ... ... purchased.

" The Annals of Natural History"... ... ,,

" The Micrographic Dictionary," Part VII „

Photograph of Mr. F. S. Morten.
Mr. Ingpen called attention to the possible value of an aqueous solution
of iodine for preserving and mounting Volvox and other Algse. The solu-
tion was prepared by adding caustic potash to an alcoholic solution of iodine
till it became colourless, avoiding any excess of potash. It should be greatly
diluted. He showed specimens of Volvox that had been mounted more than
a month, and appeared in very good condition.

The President read a paper " On the histological development of the larva
of Corethra plumicornis.

>!

>)

}

„ the Author,
in exchange.

M

103

Mr. Hardy said that he had given the subject some attention, and made
some observations upon the air-sacs, with regard to their ultimate use. Two
very thin and transparent bodies were attached to the air-sacs (reniform
bodies) of the thorax ; these bodies, as the air-sacs gradually extended to-
wards the head, were developed into long ear-shaped sacs while inside the
body of the larva. When these were perfected, they quickly made their
way out of the thorax behind the head, and appeared as two lobes having
a peculiar ear-like appearance. They evidently acted as buoys to the now
developed pupa, and seemed to have deprived the original air-sacs of their
contents, for the latter broke up and dispersed after the extension of the
ear-like lobes. While this was going on at the head, the air-sacs of the tail
were also tending outward, and at about the same time as the lobes appeared
at the head, the sacs of the tail were developed externally into two large
flat branchial lobes, having little floating power, so that the pupa swam
perpendicularly head upwards. He had also reason to believe that similar
larvae underwent another transformation, and appeared as pupae swimming
head downwards. These latter developed into the gnat (Culex), while the
former pupae developed into Corethra plumicornis.

The President said that it would be interesting to get the eggs, and ascer-
tain when the air-sacs were first formed.

Mr. Hardy considered that there was a second pupal condition to prepare
the insect for its aerial existence,

Mr. Freeman doubted the transformation of the Corethra larva into the
perfect form of a Culex.

The President described the contractile effect produced upon the muscles
by treatment with acetic acid.

A vote of thanks to the President for his paper was proposed by Dr.
Matthews, and carried unanimously.

Mr. Gilburt described the process of development and liberation of the
zoospores of Vaucharia, which was at that time abundant at the water-
works of the East London Water Company at Hackney Marshes, the plant
being in the most favourable condition for the examination of this interest-
ing portion of its life history.

The President announced the engagements for the ensuing month, and
the proceedings concluded with the usual Conversazione, at which the fol-
lowing objects were exhibited : —

Larva of Corethra plumicornis ... ... The President.

Section of stem of Mistletoe, stained ... Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Ship's Barnacles ... ... ... ... Mr. H. Epps.

Head and leg of Crab ro cibarius ... ... Mr. H. E. Freeman.

Fang and poison-bag of American Centipede... Mr. H. R.Gregory.

Vblvox globator, mounted in a solution of) ., T „ T
. . y ' £ Mr. J. E. Iugpen.

iodine and potash ... ... )

Nest Qf a trap-door Spider from South ) r> • M Hh
America ... ... ... >

Attendance — Members, 56 ; Visitors, 5.

104

March 10th, 1882. — Conversational Meeting.

The following objects were exhibited : —
Stellate hairs from Lime tree, polarized
Marine Alga, CallithamnionBrodiei, in fruit,")

the favellae containing spores ... )

Synedra splendens

Foraminifera from South Sea Islands
Hoplophora magna (living), showing its")

power of closing up ... ... )

Spermatozoon of Triton cristatus, showing"

the barb on the head X 1200 diam. Powell

and Lealand's ^ oil imn., N. A. D43.
Sections of Coal, prepared by Dr. Eeinsch,"

containing vegetable organisms which have

been described as new to science ...
Cladode and Stem of Ruscus aculeaius
Astrolampora (sp. ?) from Nottingham, U.S. ,
Head of House Spider (Ciniflo similis), male.

Attendance — Members, 50 ; Visitors, 4.

Mr. F. W. Andrew.
Mr. T. H. Buff ham;

Mr.

A.

L.

Corbett.

Mr.

H.

G.

Glasspoole

Mr.

A.

D.

Michael.

Mr.

E.

M.

Nelson.

Mr.

, E

.T.

Newton.

Mr

. J.

W

. Reid.

Mr.

, G.

Start.

Mr.

F.

Wood.

March 24th, 1882. — Ordinary Meeting.
J. W. Groves, Esq., F.R.M.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
The following gentlemen were balloted for, and duly elected members of
the Club :— Mr. B. Dale, Mr. H. Selby, Mr. W. D. Smith, and Mr. J. Vicars.
The following additions to the Library were announced : —

from the Society.
„ Mr. T.C.White.

■}

}

the Society.

>>

" Proceedings of the Royal Society "

" Journal of the Linnean Society "...

" 9th Report, &c, of the New Cross Micro-
scopical Society "

" Proceedings of the Natural History Society")
of Glasgow" ... ... ... )

" Proceedings of the Natural History Society"
of New South Wales " ...

" Science Gossip "

"The Analyst" ...

"The Northern Microscopist "

"American Monthly Microscopical Journal".

2 Parts "Wonders of the Microscope " (old") frQm Mr> Glagspoole .
and scarce) ... ... ... J

"Annals of Natural nistory " ... ... purchased.

" Micrographic Dictionary ''

2 Parts "Schmidt's Diatomaceae" ...

>>

the Publisher.

>*

»>

in exchange.

»

105

The thanks of the meeting were voted to the donors.

The Chairman read a letter from Mr. W. G. Cocks, giving a detailed list
of objects found at the last excursion of the Club to Snaresbrook.

Mr. Michael called attention to a slide which he had brought for exhibi-
tion, which illustrated the curious fact that many of the Marine Annelids
had a proboscis which was revertible, so that the pharynx became an ex-
ternal organ, and practically a supplementary mouth.

The Chairman said it was not always easy to get a mount of this kind,
although they might sometimes be fortunate enough to see this curious
condition in a living animal. He should like to know how Mr.
Michael managed to get the animal in this position, so as to be able to
preserve it.

Mr. Michael said it was generally much more of an accident than any-
thing else. He found no better way than to put the creature under the
microscope in a watch glass, and observe it until it was in a good position,
and then to drop some methylated spirit upon it.

Mr. James Mackenzie exhibited two forms of gas lamp, which he had
constructed specially for use with the microscope.

Dr. Matthews inquired if Mr. Mackenzie had tried the effect of an
oxidator upon a flat flame gas burner ; he thought this would be worth
trying.

Mr. Ingpen said that the flat flame shown was larger than was necessary
for microscopical purposes.

Mr. Mackenzie considered that a large flame was often wanted.
Dr. Matthews suggested that the burner should be made of steatite with
an oxidator above it like a paraffin lamp, and with something like an iris
diaphragm below to regulate the draught.

Mr. Mackenzie thought perhaps this might be clone ; he would try and
carry out the suggestion.

Mr. E. T. Newton read a paper " On Fishes' tails," which he illustrated by
numerous diagrams and specimens.

On the motion of the Chairman, a vote of thanks to Mr. Newton for his
interesting paper was unanimously passed.

The Chairman said that the Committee had that evening passed a resolu-
tion protesting against the proposed draining of Epping Forest ; a similar
course had been adopted by most of the Natural History Societies in and
near London. The resolution was then read to, and approved by the meet-
ing.

Notices of meetings and excursions for the ensuing month were then
read, and invitations to members to assist at the forthcoming Soirees of the
Ealing and Highgate Societies were given. The meeting then terminated
with the usual Conversazione, at which the following objects were ex-
hibited : —

Section of a Small Orauge ... ... Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Microscope Gas Lamp with Argand burner "J

„ ,, „ „ small ditto > Mr. J. Mackenzie.

,, „ „ „ Flat flame burner )

106

Phyllodace, a marine Rapacious Poly chitons'

Annelid, showing the pharynx everted so ^ Mr. A. D. Michael.

as to form an external mouth
Tails of Lancelet, Lamprey, Eel, Sprat, Cod,"i Mr. E. T. Newton and

and Carp ... ... ... ) Mr. J. W. Reed.

Attendance —Members. 47 ; Visitors, 4.

1

April 14th, 1882. — Conversational Meeting.

The following objects were exhibited: —

Branched hairs on leaf of Blanket plant,") , r , ™ r^- « -,
Verbascum thapsus, polarized ... )

Callithamnion Tumeri, Marine Alga, in fruit,)

,.,,,, s \ Mr. T. H. Buff ham.

showing the tetraspores ... )

Transverse section of hair of African") M r. H. E. Freeman.

Elephant ... ... ... )

Diatoms from Barnes Common ... ... Mr. H. G. Glasspoole.

Stained leaf of Potamogeton natans, polarized, *)

showing chains of cells enclosing sphoera- > Mr. H. Morland.

phides ... ... ... J

Nelson's opaque flake gelatine, polarized ... Mr. T. S.Morten.

Asteromphalus (sp. P) ... ... ... Mr. G. Sturt.

Attendance— Members, 44 ; Visitors, 2.

107

On an Algal Form Growing in a Solution of Cupric Sulphate.

By F. Kitton, Hon. F.R.M.S.
{Read April 28th, 1882.)

Some six months ago I filled an " engraver's globe" with a
solution of sulphate of copper (afterwards described by me in
" Science Gossip ") ; the proportions were about 2 oz. of a saturated
solution to 40 oz. of water ; the latter was the water supplied by
the Chelsea Company. Before filling the globe I allowed the
mixture to remain for three days in a glass vessel, in order that the
sulphate of lime and other impurities might subside, and then care-
fully decanted it into the " globe," leaving about 1 oz. of turbid,
almost muddy deposit behind. In a short time the solution lost
its transparency, and little flocculent specks could be seen floating
about in it, when the globe was shaken ; I again poured the solution
into the glass vessel, leaving almost all the specks behind. The
cloudy appearance arose from a chalky (?) deposit upon the surface
of the glass, which I had some difficulty in removing. The solu-
tion in the glass was clear, with the exception of a few of the
" specks " floating about, and which I removed with a pipette. In
the course of a day or two I poured back the solution, and it
appeared perfectly transparent ; some six weeks afterwards I
noticed that many hundreds of these specks had again made their
appearance, and I now, for the first time examined them with the
microscope, and found that they were some species of Alga,
perhaps an imperfect state of Conferva rivularis.

The specimen sent with this is mounted in the original solution.

Journ. Q. M. 0., Series II., No. 3. k

108

On " The Chromatoscope," A Method of Illuminating
Crystals and Similar Objects by Coloured Light.

By J. D. Hardy.

{Communicated Apeil 28th, 1882.)

I wish to introduce to your notice tins evening a new method of
illumination which will be found of great value in mineralogy,
crystallography, and on all such material where polarization cannot
be applied; and even with objects which will polarize this method is
equally applicable (unless it is in experiment or study). It differ-
entiates some objects almost as well as polarization, while the light
or brilliancy is much greater, giving to them a beauty and clearness
such as have not yet been attainable. I show it here in its simplest
form, but it is capable of many modifications, and its cheapness as
a substitute for the polarizing apparatus will render it applicable
to the cheapest microscopes with very little additional expense.

The construction is as follows : — Taking a spot lens, a short
flanged tube is fitted to slide easily inside, and underneath
the " spot " when attached to the microscope. I cement a piece
of clear glass to the flange (or it may be bevelled in), and to the
inner side of the plain glass I put two or three pieces of stained
glass, either kept in their places with a little balsam or by another
piece of plain glass above them, as in a kaleidoscope. This com-
pletes the instrument, which, it will be seen, is as simple as possible.
The light is transmitted by the mirror in the usual way, and
the revolution of the " Chromatoscope " will show the same
effect on crystals, &c, as if they were polarized. Such objects
as Sponge spicules, Polycistina, Diatoms, &c, have all their
peculiarities rendered more easily visible, and at the same time
their appearance is greatly enhanced by the effect of a variety
of tints which are not otherwise obtainable. Another advantage
is, that crystals can be viewed as if polarized, without being
damaged by mounting in balsam, or having a cover-glass over
them. The finest spicules of some crystals are thus kept intact,
and exhibited with great clearness.

109

On a Portable Binocular Dissecting and Mounting

Microscope.

By the Rev. H. J. Fase.

(Bead May 26th, 1882.)

It having been suggested that the form of microscope made to
meet my own wants might prove useful to others, I gladly, at the
request of our Secretary, send it for inspection, together with a
few words of explanation.

It may perhaps make more clear the arrangements and general
purpose which this microscope is intended to fulfil, if the circum-
stances which gave rise to its construction are briefly narrated.

Not long since it was my lot to be away from London during a
considerable portion of two years, most of the time moving about
frequently from place to place.

Occasionally microscopic objects of interest presented themselves,
which were in many cases lost or damaged irretrievably, because
materials for mounting them were not at hand.

There was no difficulty as to the carriage of a small folding
microscope in a portmanteau, but there was found to be, in practice,
considerable difficulty in carrying safely and compactly, and so
that they might be readily got at and replaced, the many small
matters required in dissecting and mounting.

I found it took a lot of time and care to pack them, if there
was to be a tolerable hope of their safety in their travels. If this
were not accorded to them dire was the consequence apparent
when the box containing them was opened, in the shape of an
awful smash, and considerable expenditure of glass, not easily
replaced in a remote country village.

Balsam, turpentine, glycerine, and methylated spirit are capital
things in the right place, but it struck me very forcibly after
experience thereof, that the right place for these very insinuating
and tenacious media was not on linen, or clothes, hair-brushes

110 H. J. FASE ON A PORTABLE BINOCULAR

and combs. I therefore sought some arrangement by which all the
things required for

1. Dissecting.

2. Mounting, and

3. A binocular for observing could be carried in a compact form.
Although fairly well acquainted with various adaptations and

forms of instrument already made, I did not find what I wanted.
I therefore set to work to make a model in wood, which should
meet the following requirements, viz., that it should contain

I. A full-sized, steady dissecting stage, with absolutely neces-
sary instruments.

Two pairs scissors, knives.

Two pairs forceps, watch-glass, needle points, &c, &c.

II. An arm, so constructed that it would carry —

1. A large low-power lens for dissecting.

2. A ring, into which various objectives could be dropped for
the same purpose.

3. A binocular body, which could be easily substituted for the
ring, and

(a) Permit of investigation of the manner in which the dissection
was progressing, and also

(£) Be steady enough to make an efficient binocular for ordinary
observation.

III. That there should be places in the case for a small number of

1. Cements, and media most usually required by working
microscopists.

2. Brushes, dipping tubes, lamp clips, slides, glass circles,
troughs, a hot plate, turn-table, packed in such a way that each of
them should be safely carried, easily got at, and replaced.

3. That every fitting should be full-sized.

The model I made in wood — many thanks are due to Mr. Swift,
who has most patiently rendered it into that, in which, modest man
though he be, he confessedly excels, viz., brass.

A view of the arrangement will make the plan clearer than any
description can do. But I will call attention to one or two points
which might escape notice on a first inspection.

1. The condenser is formed of two lenses, and besides acting as
an ordinary condenser, makes a capital long focus dissecting lens.

2. The mirror is removable, and can be utilized as a side re-
flector above the stage.

DISSECTING AND MOUNTING MICROSCOPE. Ill

3. The achromatic condenser, fitted with stops, giving a good
black-ground effect, works by a milled head above the stage, and
conveniently near the other adjustments.

4. The rest for the hands while dissecting which the stand gives
is equally available when the binocular is being used for general
observation. It is comfortable, and I hope will be found to increase
delicacy in the manipulation of objects.

Though rigid, the stand can be made lighter than can that of
the ordinary form.

I take it that the whole apparatus will not be more weighty
than an ordinary binocular instrument ; while it will, with all the
helps to dissection, mounting, and observation, pack in a space
not larger than ordinary small monocular instruments.

A larger number of cements could be carried if the bottles were
of a slightly smaller size.

I should propose that, instead of the outside case being of
polished mahogany, it should be of painted canvas, such as port-
manteaus are made of.

The above was specially constructed for travelling, but might
perhaps be useful to workers, as comprising in a small compass
many things necessary for microscopical work.

112

THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.
Delivered at the Annual General Meeting, July 28th, 1882.

By T. Charters White, M.R.C.S., L.D.S., &c.

It is again my duty to offer you my warmest congratulations on
the continued prosperity of the Quekett Microscopical Club, as
illustrated by the satisfactory Report just read. It must always be
pleasing to those so intimately connected with its progress as now
surround me to contemplate this prosperity, and the ever-increas-
ing prestige which the Club holds in the estimation of the micro-
scopical public ; a prestige which is richly deserved by the stimulus
and encouragement it has given to microscopical pursuits, especially
amongst the younger members of the community ; during the period
of its existence— as from a centre, its influence has radiated to the
provinces and even to our colonial possessions, and every member
passing from its vicinity to other and distant localities has become
a fresh centre of influence in exciting interest in microscopical
observation. Should any future history of the microscope be written,
we may certainly expect, without any wish to depreciate the work
of other and kindred societies, that the important part which our
Club has played during the 17 years of its existence, will find a
ready recognition at the hands of the historian ; and if we cannot
point to so much good and original work as we could have wished,
and the absence of which we regret, still the Club has fostered and
encouraged that love of microscopical observation which may yet
culminate in most valuable results when the occasion arises which
demands them. There are very few young minds that are not at
once struck with an intense interest in peering into the minute
world revealed in the microscope ; no voyager in strange lands can
be more fascinated by the fresh and wondrous sights which arrest
his attention than is the novice in microscopical observation with
the innumerable forms of beauty, symmetry and grace which lay in
the microcosm at his very feet. 'J his intense interest leads him on
with a burning desire to know more ; we seem to hear the ringing

THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 113

cry of " Excelsior " high up in the air ; objectives which formerly
were sources of satisfaction are now no longer sufficiently powerful;
higher and still higher powers are demanded till the limits of
illumination forbid his further advance, but still the longing desire
to see more and farther into the invisible is unsatisfied, and in our
present stage of progress ever will be.

To gain some insight into the magnitude and universality of
this interest, we have only to look back over past ages to the early
dawn of the science of optics, when the refrangibility of the light
rays first arrested the observation of mankind, and then, tracing up
the successive steps by which men sought to understand the various
phenomena presented to their notice, we shall find that the desire
for further information in this direction led to further investigations.
Men were not satisfied by the bare glimpses revealed, as it were*
through chinks and crevices, they longed to burst open the vast
and wondrous storehouse which, by deductive reasoning, they felt
lay beyond, and so they laid fact to fact, till law after law was
eliminated from the hitherto unknown.

It is my wish this evening to endeavour to trace, shortly and
briefly, because of the shortness of the time that can be allotted to
me, some of the successive steps by which we have attained to our
present position in the use of the microscope.

In our endeavours to trace the history of Optics back to remote
times, we are met by much obscurity and no small difficulty in
extricating ourselves out of a great deal that is uncertain, and our
perplexity is not diminished by the considerable difference of
opinion prevalent amongst the ablest critics relative to the first
observers of that wonderful mode of motion upon which all our
microscopical studies are based, and which we call Light. We
shall readily concede that the earliest inhabitants of the earth were
cognisant of the contrasts of light and shade, but beyond that
point their observations did not probably extend. Then we read
iu history of the Chaldeans, Egyptians, and Chinese who, in early
days, were acute astronomers, but we are not warranted in believ-
ing that they knew anything of the science of Optics, and certainly
did not possess astronomical glasses; and although their observa-
tions were very accurate with such means as they did possess, it
remained for successive generations to work out the laws of Light,
which work has culminated in the finished and elaborate apparatus of
to-day. In dealing with this subject we cannot overlook the im-

114 THE PRESIDENT^ ADDRESS.

portance attached to that study of Light and the laws of refraction
which forms the very foundation-stone on which microscopical
science has been reared. Tiuie will not, however, permit us to
refer by name to all those early workers who helped to forward
our knowledge of the subtle element, but it is sufficient to say that
when once the ball was set rolling, by attention being called to the
wondrous phenomena associated with Light, it attracted to its study
all the ablest philosophers of ancient times, each in turn taking up
the marvellous theme, and handing it on, with the additions received
at his hands, to be still further elucidated at the hands of others ;
thus our knowledge of Light has increased from one step to another
since Aristotle first laid the foundation of Optical Science, 2,200
years ago. Men in these early days were striving after this know-
ledge, and theories became abundant ; thus we find it recorded in
the history of this time that Empedocles, 450 B.C., held the
opinion that Light consisted of particles emitted from luminous
bodies, yet vision was not complete without certain emanations
from the eye to the object. Aristotle, 100 years afterwards, called
in question this theory, contending that light did not consist of
material particles, but was rather an impulse propagated through
some immaterial medium ; his teaching, however, is so mixed up
with mysticism that one cannot quite determine whether this may or
not be considered as the first dawning of the wave theory of Light,
which received its more perfect development under the hands of
Newton and subsequent scientists. We find that the manufacture
of glass had made considerable progress about this period, 450
B.C., and the mention of burning glasses by Aristophanes in his
comedy of " The Clouds," written about 431 B.C., together with
the statement that the Roman fleet before Syracuse, 250, B.C., was
burned by Archimides by polished metal specula, although as an his-
torical and physical fact open to grave question, yet testifies to the
attention of early observers being directed to the refrangibility of
the light-rays and their capability of being concentrated in a focus.
Although this capability was known, very little practical use was
made of it till after the Christian era. Seneca, about A.D. 50,
observed the magnifying power possessed by glass globes of water,
and Pliny, A.D. 79, describes surgical operations, probably actual
cautery, being performed by means of spheres of rock crystal, and
he also notices the fact that the rays of the sun coming through
a glass globe filled with water, become a source of sufficient

115

THE PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

lieat to ignite any inflammable body on which they fall, bnt this
power was not connected in the minds of these men with the len-
ticular form of the glass. Nevertheless every fact observed created
one more link in that chain of our knowledge which spans the
wide interval we are considering, and must not be passed by with-
out notice. We are still, to a great extent, dealing with an age
when sjDeculation was rife, and demonstration had not began ;
theory was preceding practice, but Seneca proclaimed in prophetic
tones, " The time will come when a future day, and the diligence
of a distant age shall bring to light those things which now lie hid;
the time will come when our posterity will wonder that we should
have been ignorant of things so obvious." But that time is not yet
reached in this review of microscopical progress. Claudius
Ptolomasus, commonly called Ptolemy, about A.D. 140, finding
that his astronomical pursuits necessitated a more accurate know-
ledge of the laws governing the refrangibility of the light-rays,
set himself the task of working out the refractive indices of a ray
passing at different angles from air into water or glass, being led
to these calculations by observing that a coin placed at the bottom
of a basin in such a position as to be invisible, became visible on
pouring in water. He leaves behind him an elaborate collection of
these measurements, which furnish the oldest extant example of
accurately-conducted physical investigation by experiment.

A wide gap now intervenes between the researches of Ptolemy
and the revival of the subject of magnifying glasses by Alhazen
in 1100 ; during this period the subject of Light appears to have
lain dormant, but we are getting more into the region of practical
optics, for Alhazen observed that objects were magnified when held
close to the plane side of the large segment of a sphere of glass.
If during this period the practice of optics, if we may so call it,
produced no evident result, yet the progress of our knowledge was
not stayed, being helped in an eminent degree by the mathematical
labours of Euclid, who gained for us a basis of definite calculation
which served to forward our knowledge of the proper construction
of lenses.

We know of nothing approaching the character of a lens existing
at this period excepting that found by Mr. Layard in his excava-
tions at the south-west Palace of Nimroud. As some stress may
be laid upon this as proof that some sorts of magnifying glasses
were in vogue in the ages of antiquity, I may describe it here, and I

116 The president's address.

think all who are competent to judge will discern that, whatever
its use might have been, it could have been of but slight utility in
enabling its possessor to amplify small objects. Sir David Brewster,
to whom Mr. Layard submitted it, thus describes it: — " This lens
is plano-convex, and of a slightly oval form, its length is 1-^
inches, and its breadth, 1*-$ inches; it is about ^ of an inch
thick, and a little thicker at one side than the other ; its plane
surface is pretty even, though ill-polished and scratched ; its convex
surface has not been ground or polished on a spherical concave
disc, but has been fashioned on a lapidary's wheel, or by some
method equally rude. The convex side is tolerably well polished,
and though uneven, from the mode in which it has been ground, it
gives a tolerably distinct focus at 4^- inches distance from the plane
side. It is obvious from the shape and rude cutting of the lens
that it could not have been intended as an ornament ; we are
entitled, therefore, to consider it as intended to be used as a lens,
either for magnifying or for concentrating the rays of the sun,
which it does however very imperfectly."

This lens was found in the Royal Palace of Nimroud, buried
beneath a heap of fragments of blue, opaque glass (?) apparently the
enamel of some object in ivory or wood, bat it was honoured by
being in the same room as the royal throne, and may now be seen
by any one interested in this subject in the Assyrian collection at
the British Museum, in a glass table case, supported in an upright
position by wire standards. We may probably date the construc-
tion of this lens back to the time of Ninus and his wife Semiramis,
for it was only in their reign that much encouragement was given
to the arts, and that period would be about 2,000 years before the
Christian era ; thus entitling it to be considered the oldest lens
extant, if lens it be. It is not of glass but of rock crystal.

Passing from this digression, we arrive at the early part of the
13th century, where we find Friar Roger Bacon hard at work in
his laboratory at Oxford, applying his mathematical attainments
to the construction of such lenses as were suitable for improving
the sight, or, if not actually constructing them, laying down such
rules for doing so as to prove that he was sufficiently master of the
laws of refraction to be able to calculate the foci of segments of
spheres, and thus aiding their adaptation to the construction of
spectacles ; but even in these comparatively modern times we are
met by much obscurity in the history of lenses, some writers deny-

THE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 117

ing that Bacon possessed any especial knowledge of this subject,
while others affirm that if he did not himself reduce his attain-
ments to the actual formation and use of lenses, he made known
principles which could hardly remain long without practical appli-
cation. Some historians set down the year 1313 as the period
when spectacles were first invented, but in 1299 we find one writer
saying, " I find myself so pressed by age that I can neither read
nor write without those glasses they call spectacles, lately in-
vented, to the great advantage of poor old men when their sight
grows weak." Some authors set down the year 1214 as that in
which Friar Bacon invented spectacles, but leaving these doubtful
points, yon will see how from this time a steady onward pro-
gress is made in the application of the laws of Optics to the
amplification of distant and small objects. From the death of
Friar Bacon, in 1292, to the time of Maurolycus, about 1575,
philosophers seemed to have been principally occupied in investi-
gating the laws of refraction in their relations to glass and water,
apparently repeating and verifying the observations and calcula-
tions of Ptolemy. Franciscus Maurolycus, an eminent mathe-
matician of the 16th century, had advanced so far as to conceive
the true office of the crystalline lens of the eye, and published his
views in a work entitled " Theoremata de Lumine et Umbra," in
which he gives an explanation of the facts noticed years before by
Aristotle, that the rays from the sun passing into a dark room
through a minute hole always gave an image of the sun on a
screen placed at some little distance from it. About 15 years before
the publication of this work, Baptista Porta, then a youth, invented
the camera obscura, and Maurolycus being aware of the lens placed
to concentrate the light in this camera, was led to consider the
office of the crystalline lens to be analogous to it. All these
instances I have quoted show that men's minds were actively
exercised upon the subject of the refrangibility of the light-rays,
and were led gradually to the evolution of more complex apparatus
for the display of their phenomena.

Those of you who visited the exhibition of scientific instruments
at the Loan Collection at South Kensington in 1876 may probably
remember Galileo's telescope. Galileo was born A.D. 1564, and
may be considered the founder of the microscope, inasmuch as
after inventing the telescope the invention of the microscope was
easy, the mathematical principles involved in their construction

118 THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.

being identical, and thus we find it recorded of Galileo that he con-
structed instruments for the magnification of small objects in 1612.
He did not care so much for these as he did for his telescope and
the glorious field of astronomical discovery it had opened up to
him, and so his right to be considered the inventor of the two in-
struments has been overshadowed by the working opticians ot
that period.

The invention of the telescope appears to be variously ascribed
to several others, and its history and origin consequently obscured.
Thus it was attributed to one James Metius, who used to make
burning glasses and mirrors, and who, casually looking through
two of his lenses at a time, noticed that distant objects were brought
apparently near. Other writers assign the discovery to John
Lippersheim, or Lipperhay, of Middleburg, in Zealand ; while
Borellus gives the credit to Zacharias Jansen, another maker of
spectacles of the same place, who it is stated made the first tele-
scope in 1590. Several claimants, however, arose and asserted their
rights to be called inventors, such as Francis Fontana, an Italian,
who claims to have made a telescope in 1608, but it is well known
that they were publicly sold in Holland long before that date.
Some say that Galileo ought to be considered the inventor, but
he himself disclaims any right to be so considered. His own
account of the invention of the telescope is that hearing of
some such contrivance, from rumours floating about, he set himself
to consider upon what optical principles such an effect could be
produced, and at length constructed a telescope, which showed dis-
tant objects magnified and erect, while the alleged discoveries of
either Jansen or Lipperhay showed inverted images. Galileo
would probably be about 30 years of age at this time, and, perhaps,
making himself acquainted with all the scientific doings of the
period, and hearing of the telescopes but not seeing them, would
construct one on his own principles, and thus become a discoverer
equally with the Dutch opticians. About this time much interest
appears to have been taken in the effects produced by varying the
position of lenses and by an alteration in their curvature, and thus
the invention of microscopes followed very quickly on that of
telescopes ; and, according to Borellus, Zacharias Jansen again
comes to the front with a composite form, something between a
telescope and a microscope. The invention of microscopes has
been claimed by Signor Fontana, who seems to have laid claim to

THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 119

this invention in much the same fashion as he did to that of the
telescope, for he never published any account of his invention till
1646, notwithstanding his assertion that he made the discovery a
quarter of a century before. We may fairly disregard his claim in
the undoubted fact that one of Jansen's microscopes which had
been presented to Prince Maurice was in the possession of Cornelius
Drebell, who, in 1617, resided in London, as mathematician to
King James VI. Eustace Divini, about this period, made
microscopes with two object glasses, as they were then called, and
two plano-convex eye glasses joined together on their convex sides,
enclosing them in a tube as large as a man's leg, the eye-pieces
being of the size of the palm of the hand ; but opticians were all
at sea in their conceptions of microscopical requirements, and hence
this clumsy and unwieldly tube of Divini's, for we find that about
1688 Hartsoeker, by means of a single lens of high curvature, made
such investigations that he laid the foundation for our true know-
ledge of the function of reproduction ; and those of you who have
any acquaintance with physiology will readily understand that the
minute single lenses he employed mnst have possessed great mag-
nifying power and a not very imperfect definition. The combination
of these qualities rendered them so suitable for the amplification of
small objects that books treating of microscopes, published about
this time, contain directions for the production of these lenses by
melting threads of glass in the flame of a candle till the glass runs
into a spherical drop. Christian Huygens, an eminent Dutch
mathematician and astronomer, about 1678, had made such a simple
microscope as this, the jqUi of an inch in diameter, which gave a
linear magnifying power of 100, and doubtless this was considered
an achievement in those days ; and except for the difficulty of
applying objects to it, the want of light, and the contracted field,
it might be considered a very perfect instrument for that time. It
was with such a microscope that Leeuwenhoek made all those mar-
vellous discoveries of infusorian life which will immortalise his
name wherever the microscope is used. He employed double
convex lenses of various diameters, which he made for himself by
melting rods of glass in a flame and afterwards grinding them to
the desired curvature. Twenty-six of these microscopes, together
with the apparatus which held them, he bequeathed to our Royal
Society. The greatest magnifying power amongst them has its
focus at -^q of an inch from the object, and is said to magnify 160

120 THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.

diameters. In 1710 Mr. Adams gave to the Royal Society a paper
detailing his method of making these microscopes, and he states
that placing these globules of glass between silver plates, having
holes in them to hold the lenses, he found them act admirably. It
soon occurred to others that if spherical drops of glass would mag-
nify, spherical drops of water would do so also ; and a Mr. Stephen
Gray published a paper, in which he gave the necessary directions
for the formation of microscopes from drops of water held in sus-
pension from pin holes in plates of metal; but it was found that the
refractive power of water was not so great as that of glass, and
consequently these water lenses were abandoned, but subsequent
investigators, amongst whom we may name Sir David Brewster,
still tried fluid lenses, substituting viscid fluids of different degrees
of density for the plain water formerly used, and generally with
good results, but they were not found so convenient in their mani-
pulation as more solid material, and they were finally abandoned.
Opticians then, a few years after, ran to the opposite extreme, from
fluids to the hardest known materials ; and we find it recorded that
Messrs. Goring and Pritchard made lenses of diamonds, sapphires
and garnets, but the expense of working these, and certain faults
found in the diamond lenses after they were fashioned into shape
led to the discontinuance of their use. The smallest globules of
glass, and therefore the greatest magnifying powers in existence in
1765, were made by Signor Torre, of Naples, who sent four of
them to the Royal Society ; the largest of them being only g^th
of an inch in diameter, but said to magnify the diameter of an
object 640 times. The smallest was y-j-^th of an inch. What-
ever use Torre made of these is not stated, but Baker, who had
successfully worked with Leeuwenhoek's glasses, could make
nothing of them. Up to this period history affords us very little
insight into the mechanical arrangements of microscopes, for with
the exception of the plates used to hold these glass spheres, with a
point upon which to place the object in their focus, we hear of
nothing besides until we come to 1743, when the microscope most
generally known and used was Wilson's pocket microscope, and as
its appearance, after the simple lens and its sustaining plate, must
have excited some wonder and admiration I may briefly describe
its character. Its body was of brass, ivory, or silver. The single
lens doing duty as eye-piece was fastened in the end of a tube,
which, having a finely threaded male screw cut on its outside and

THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 121

working within the female screw cut in the body of the instrument,
served to get the focus, the various magnifying powers being
screwed into the end of the body. A handle, fastened by a screw
to the outside of this tube, served to hold this microscope up to the
light in examining an object. This, after all previous contrivances,
was deemed a great advancement in adaptation of focus and con-
venience of application to objects ; but soon the inventive genius of
that day found means for its improvement, and it was followed by
the single reflecting microscope, for it was found to be inconvenient
to hold Wilson's microscope up to the influence of direct light;
therefore a modified arrangement of it was supported by a vertical
scroll fixed in a circular wooden foot, and a mirror mounted beneath,
so arranged that ligbt from any source could be directed into the
body of the microscope. We have here, in this instance, the first
practical inception of our present arrangements, and although this
was considered another step in advance of Wilson it did not satisfy
the growing needs of microscopists of that day, inasmuch as it
could only be used for transparent objects, and they needed some-
times to look at those which were opaque, and condensing lenses
were then added to this form of microscope. Culpepper, and after
him Cuff, still further improved upon this, till a great advance
towards our present form was made by Benjamin Martin in an
instrument designed to serve the combined uses of what at that
time were divided into single, compound, opaque, and aquatic
microscopes. It would be tedious were I to enlarge upon the
progressive stages by which our grand instruments of to-day have
been undergoing a gradual process of evolution from the primitive
and ere-while considered perfect instrument of 140 years ago, and
therefore I must omit what is so well known to all present.

Although the principle of binocular vision was applied to tele-
scopes by John Lippersheim for the Dutch government in 1609, it
was not till 1667 that it was applied to the microscope by Pere-
Cherubin, of Orleans. Although the clever friar was so successful
that the effects were stated to be marvellous and surprising, yet the
discovery laid dormant till Sir Charles Wheatstone directed the
attention of the scientific public to his stereoscope, and, calling in
the aid of our distinguished opticians, Messrs. Powell and Ross,
tried to construct a microscope on stereoscopic principles ; but prac-
tical difficulties opposed further progress in this direction.

In 1851 the difficulty was solved by Professor Riddle, of the

122 the president's address.

United States, and a binocular microscope was constructed and
figured in " Silliman's Journal " for 1853. Nachet also, as you
are aware, was highly successful as a maker of this form of instru-
ment, and our fellow countryman, Mr. Wenham, made such
further important improvements that this class of instrument is still
held in the greatest estimation by those microscopists who do not
need the very highest powers objectives can furnish. In the
binoculars in general use the images are, as you all know, inverted,
but a notice of this kind, which endeavours to treat of the progres-
sive advancement of our favourite instrument, cannot be allowed to
omit the mention of that form of binocular invented by Mr. J. W.
Stephenson, wherein the images are erect, and increased facilities
are thereby given for the easy exploration of minute structures
even with very high powers. Now, in looking back over that
period of time embraced by these few notes, we are enabled to
estimate the amount of interest which has actuated the minds
of men in striving after a more perfect knowledge of the nature
of Light and its various phenomena ; and it is worthy of notice
that an interest born in the dark ages of antiquity, and fading
not through rnediasval times, exists in its greatest intensity in the
present, and who can tell what the future may produce ? As the
laws of Light became better understood, so our means of seeking
the invisible became gradually more perfect, till the limits of
our illuminating power forbade the use of objectives higher than
Powell's Jq, but who shall presume to assert that, with the advent
of the electric light and improved immersion fluids, we shall not be
able to extend our vision into that world which we know lies beyond
the grasp of our present powers. It is but 140 years since the
first birth of Wilson's microscope — the crude and early parent of our
present form — and what is that length of time wherein to perfect
our microscopical appliances ? I doubt not but it will be con-
sidered too brief for much development, a period of adolescence in
the long life of the microscope, but a period long enough, it is
true, to bring it from a plain and primitive form to one in which,
by the combined endeavours of home and foreign scientists, it
presents a grand piece of mechanism contrived for every con-
ceivable purpose. I should be sorry to think we had attained the
utmost limits of our power of reaching further into the, at present,
invisible world which lies beyond the grasp of our -^ of an inch
objective, and which that barely touches ; but if so much has been

THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. 123

attained in the comparatively short time we have been considering,
I think we have great and abundant cause for hope in the years to
come. Through the ages all along the subject of Light has been
one of surpassing interest to the minds of men, an interest which
even at the present time stimulates the students of physical science
to unravel the intricacies of refraction, diffraction, polarization,
spectrum analysis, photography, and other cognate branches of this
intensely interesting element, and where all are so urgently investi-
gating, I feel we, as microscopists, are encourged to look forward
to many and great improvements in our favourite instrument,
enabling us to see definitely and distinctly much that at present is
hidden from us.

In this necessarily condensed and hurried review I have endea-
voured to carry your minds back to the simple bead of glass, to
show you that when once the interest in the amplification of small
objects took possession of the minds of men they became dis-
satisfied with the powers at their disposal, and sought for increased
facilities. And do we find the microscopical mind any more satisfied
now than in the days of the simple bead ? We have made long
strides beyond that day of small beginnings, but our longings are
still unmet. We are still longing to pierce the infinitely invisible ;
and doubtless, in process of time, we may be furnished with such
improved and increased powers as shall exceed our present micro-
scopes as much as they surpass the simple sphere of glass.
Humanity owes much to the microscope, for it has been a mes-
senger of many blessings to the great human family, not only in
furnishing a lofty and soul- raising recreation, but in being the
means of assisting us to many an insight into the great problems of
life. In this aspect alone the microscope calls for the devoted
labours of all who make the subject of Light their great study, to
enable it to show those hidden causes of death and disease which
spread sorrow and distress throughout the land, and possibly help
us to a solution of the many difficulties which beset the path of the
pathologist. All glory, I say, be to those workers of whom Prof.
Abbe is a type. It is to the results of their labours that the future
microscopists must look for further advances. Workers in the
early days fashioned their lenses by the rule of thumb : now the
rigid laws of refraction are made to yield beneath the will of
modern science, and who is bold enough to limit its power ?

I beg now to thank you heartily for the honour you have con-*
Journ. Q. M. C, Series II., No. o. l

124 the president's address.

ferred upon me in electing me as your President. If in fulfilling
the duties of that office I have given satisfaction, I must attribute
it to your kindness in overlooking that inefficiency of which I am
only too conscious, and which I have many times regretted.
Gentlemen, I now take my leave of you in that capacity by intro-
ducing my successor in the person of an old and well-tried friend
of our Club, Dr. M. C. Cooke.

125

Report of the Committee.

July 28, 1882.

Your Committee, in presenting the Seventeenth Annual Report,
feel bound to record that the past year, though not devoid of good
work, has been characterized by an absence of general activity, for
which it is difficult to account.

The number of our members still keeps up to the average of the
last few years. We have, however, to regret the loss by death of
four members, Mr. W. Atkinson, Mr. W. W. Hewitt, the Rev. W.
M. Hutton, and Mr. W. Moginie.

Two of these gentlemen came but little amongst us, but Mr.
Hewitt was well known to many of us in former years, principally
by his long connection with the late Mr. Andrew and Mr. Thomas
Ross. Mr. Moginie was one of our early members, and was much
esteemed, both for his amiability and genial manners, and for the
great mechanical skill with which he devised many microscopical and
other appliances.

The resignation of 17 members, the erasure of 7 for failure in
payment of several years' subscription, and the election of 31 new
members, leaves our present number 616.

The jmpers read at our meetings have been unusually few. The
following is a list : —

1881.

Aug. 26. " On Fluid Cavities in Meteorites," by Mr. Heinrich
Hensoldt.

Sept. 23. " On the Injection of Specimens for Microscopical Ex-
amination," by the President.

Nov. 25. "On the Structure and Division of the Vegetable Cell,"
by Mr. W. H. Gilburt.

Dec. 27. " On an Improved Compressorium," by Mr. J. D,
Hardy.

126 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE.

1882.
Jan. 27. " On Sand," by Mr. J. G. Waller.
Feb. 24. u On the Histological Development of the Larva of

Coreihra plumicornis" by the President.
Mar. 24. « On Fishes' Tails," by Mr. E. T. Newton.
April 28. "On an Algal form growing in a solution of Sulphate

of Copper," by Mr. F. Kitton.
May 25. " On a new form of portable Microscope," by the Rev.

H. J. Fase.

The various verbal communications have been the means of afford-
ing information upon many subjects of interest. They will be
found reported in the Proceedings.

The difficulty of obtaining original papers continues to increase ;
and it is for those members who have at heart the welfare of the
Club to consider what claim it may have upon them to be the
channel for the publication of their investigations, and to what
extent they can further its interests in this respect. It by no means
follows that the results of their observations are not worthy of
record, because they may not involve any discoveries that are posi-
tively new. Confirmation of the work of previous observers may
often prove as valuable as a new discovery.

Your Committee have been able to make considerable additions to
the Library, which has now become really valuable for reference
on subjects connected with microscopy. The following is a list of
the additions : —

Presented by

" Dr. Carpenter on the Microscope." 6ttn mi A ,,

Edition ... ... ... J

" Marsh on Section Cutting " ... ... Mr. F. Wood.

"Balfour's Comparative Embryology."-) Mr< T . Charters White .

Yol. 2 ... ... ... )

"Tyndall's Floating.matter of the Air " ... Mr. J. W. Groves.

" Dr. Braithwaite's British Moss-Flora." ") „, . ,,

Parts 1-5 ... ... ... )

" Smithsonian Institution Report, 1880" ... U.S. Government.

" Transactions of the Linnean Society.") ,, -,-, ^ •

J } Mr. F. Crisp.

5 Vols. ... ... ... ) ^

" Journal of the Linnean Society." 2 Vols. Mr. T. Charters White.
" Proceedings of the Royal Society ' ? ... The Society.

" Journal of the Royal Microscopical ~)

Society" ... ... ... )

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE.

127

}
1

1

" Popular Science Review"

" Hardwicke's Science Gossip " ...

" Handbook of the Wild Silks of India " ...

" Northei'n Microscopist "

"American Naturalist "...

11 American Monthly Microscopical Journal "

" Reports of H.M.S. Challenger Expedi-)

tion." Yols. 3-4
"Hitchcock's Synopsis of Leidy's Fresh

water Rhizopods of North America"
" Davis' Practical Microscopy" ...
" Botanical and Physiological Memoirs ''

(Ray Society)
" Catalogue of the Histological Series in

the Museum of the College of Surgeons

2 Vols.
" Catalogue of the British Bees in the

British Museum"
"Haeckel's Radiolarians." 2 Vols.
" Darwin's Monograph of the Cirripedes."

2 Vols.
" Gosse's Sea Anemones"
" Gosse's Manual of the Marine Zoology)

of the British Isles.'' 2 Vols.... )

" Picard's Spiders of Dorset." 2 Vols.
" Jeffrey's British Conchology." 5 Vols. ...
" Spottiswoode's Polarization of Light " ...
" Dillwyn's British Conferva3 " ...
" Hooker and Baker's Synopsis Filicum" ...
"Dr. Braithwaite's British Spkagnaceaa" ...
"Piaget's Les Pediculines." 2 Vols.
"Biasoletto on Algae" ...
" Rabenhorst's European Algao." 3 Vols. ...
"Bornet and Thuret's Notes Algologiques "
" Wood's Freshwater Algae of North)

America" ... .... ... )

11 Matthew's Trichopterygia "

"Milne Edwards on Annelids." 2 Vols. ...

" Thome's Structural Botany " ...
"Schmidt's Atlas of the Diatomaceae."

Parts 17-20...
" Van Heurck's Belgian Diatoms." Parts)

4.5 1

^i v • • • * > • . > i • ■ • J

" W. Saville Kent's Infusoria." Parts 4-6 ...
" Micrographic Dictionary.'' Parts 1-12 ...
"Annals of Natural History "
" Quarterly Journal of Microscopical)
Science" ... ... ... )

}

The Publisher.

H.M. Government.
In Exchange.
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Purchased.

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128 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE.

"Grevillea" ... ... ... ... Purchased

"Dr. Cooke's British Freshwater Algte.'M
Parts 1-2 ... ... ... /

Reports and Proceedings of various Societies and Sundry Pamphlets.

A new catalogue of the Library will shortly be issued.

The following donations have been made to the Cabinet : —

By the President...

„ Mr. H. E. Freeman

„ Mr. J. W. Groves

„ Mr. H. F. Hailes

„ the Rev. J. J. Halley, of Victoria, by Mr. T. Curties 16

„ Mr. G. Paton ...

„ Mr. B. W. Priest

„ Mr. C. V. Smith

„ Mr. W. D. Smith

Total ... ... ... 63

It has been considered advisable to close the first series of the
Journal with the sixth volume, comprising the proceedings of
the Club for sixteen years. Mr. Alpheus Smith has added to
the value of this series, by compiling a copious general index ; and
your Committee take this opportunity of thanking him for this
gratuitous addition to his other honorary services.

The E xcursions during the past year have been on the whole well
attended and productive, the weather in most instances having been
favourable. It is satisfactory to note that this important feature
in the practical work of the Club has not been neglected.

An idea of the value to microscopists of some of the localities
visited may be formed by reference to the list furnished by Mr.
W. G. Cocks, and published in the Journal, of the various specimens
found at the recent excursion to Snaresbrook ; and the importance
of such public spaces being preserved in their natural condition, is
now fully recognised.

The attendances at the meetings have been unusually small, and
apparently confined for the most part to those engaged in active
work. This is due no doubt in a great measure to the rival claims
of local societies, many of which have now attained great efficiency.
It is to be regretted that more interest is not taken in the proceed-
ings of the Club by a larger number of the general body of the

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE. 129

members ; but your Committee cannot imagine that a circum-
stance of this kind is permanent in its character.

Your Committee, bearing in mind the great expense attendant
upon a Soiree, have not felt justified in holding one during the past
year.

Your Committee have considered it advisable to invest the sum
of £40 out of the subscriptions in view of future contingencies ;
and they propose to make similar investments from time to time as
circumstances permit.

A Special Exhibition Meeting was, by the kind permission of the
College, held on the 31st of March, and was quite as successful as
that held in the preceding year. Fewer invitations were issued, in
order to avoid the overcrowding previously complained of, but the
attendance of members and visitors was very satisfactory, and the
objects exhibited were numerous and interesting, and of a kind well
calculated to keep up the prestige of the Club in this respect.

The Club has again to thank the Committee of Management of
University College for their kindness in renewing permission to
hold the Club meetings in the College for the ensuing session, and
for the assurance that the ^friendly relations between them remain
unaltered.

Your Committee beg to thank the Officers of the Club for their
honorary services during the past year, well knowing how much
of its success is due to their efficiency.

Having regard to the great increase in the resources of the Club
made during the last few years, your Committee hope that the
members will hereafter avail themselves to a greater extent of the
advantages of obtaining instruction and information offered by its
present efficient condition, and by the social and friendly inter-
course that characterizes it.

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131

PROCEEDINGS.

March 31, 1882. — Special Exhibition Meeting.

The President.

Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Mr. W. A. Bevington.
Mr. W. R. Browne.

»> >>

Mr. T. H. Buff ham.
Mr. E. Carr.
Mr. W. G. Cocks.

By the kind permission of the College, a Special Meeting for the exhibi-
tion of interesting Microscopical Objects was held in the Library, and
proved quite as successful as that held on the 29th April, 1881. The number
of visitors was not so great, as it had been found necessary to issue fewer
invitations in order to avoid overcrowding. They, however, amounted to
about 180, while the members numbered over 200. The exhibits were
numerous and interesting, nearly 80 microscopes being brought.

The following is a list of such of the objects as were described on the
exhibitors' cards : —

Larval condition of Corethra plumicomis,)
shown in a new growing slide

Genuine Antique Roman glass, showing the
laminse, &c.

Istlimia enervis, in situ ... ...

Heliopelta metii ...

Arachnoidiscus japouica

Callithamnion tetricum, marine alga, in fruit.,

Hydra vulgaris ...

Polyxenes lagurus

Volvox globator

Anthrenus (Tree Dermestes)

Leaf of Drosera rotundifolia, stained

Scalariform tissue, root of fern

Pleurosigma angulatum Q- in. objective)

Seed of Nemesia versicolor

Bowerbankia, Marine Polyzoon...

Nitella, in fruit ...

Objects Multiplied by Eye of Dytiscus
(-1 in. obj.)

Arachnoidiscus ornatus on Coralline ...

Head of Hornet, Vesjja crabro, prepared")
without pressure ... ... ... )

Ship's Barnacles removed from the shells to [
show tentacles and intestine ... )

Section of eye of Dytiscus latissimus, polarized ,, „

Recent Foraminifera, 100 species, arranged... Mr. J. Epps, Jun.

Scales of Death's Head Moth Mr. A. Fieldwick, Jun.

Grouped Diatoms

j>

>»

It M

Mr. F. Coles.
Mr A. L. Corbett.
Mr. H. Crouch.

Mr. E. Dadswell.

}

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Mr. A. Dean.

Mr. C. G. Dunning.
Mr. F. Enock.

Mr. H. Epps.

jj

i)

132

1

Mouth of Balanus, the Acorn shell ...
Exuvium of Cercopsis, a plant bug ...
Aster ma gibbosa, a week old ...
Vorticella, &c, from an Aquarium
Insects in Amber

Sponge spicules

An old Microscope and apparatus
Entomostraca
Argulus folia c ens
Arrenurus globator
,, sinuator

Cyclosis in Anacharis alsinastrum
Horny upper lips of edible snail, Helix pomatia
Penicillium glaitcum, blue mould
Hydra viridis and H. fusca
Pycnogon — Achelia hispida

„ Pallene pygmoz

Stentors, Rotifers, Volvox globator
Various dry-mounted objects shown by"

chromatic light
Section of Nephetine Dolomite...
Hippocampus
A.ctinoplirys sol. ...

Micrasterias rotata

Bird Acari, mounted by the late Mr. J. Cocken
Section of Monkey's tooth
Head of Honey-bee
Ova of Gobiusniger
Grouped Diatoms
Gonium pectorale ; flu glen a
Campanularia on a Crab, and various Polyzoa
Split sections of Coral, Distichopora ...
Diatomacese

Sphacelaria filacina, a British Seaweed,
covered with Anguinaria spatulata, the
" Snake's Head Coralline " ...
Amphitetrasomata, 5 angled var. ... ...

Surirella nobilis ...

Bacillus anthracis in section of liver of Goat,")
stained with methyl violet ... ... )

Transverse section of tooth of Wolf fish,")
Anarrichus lupus, showing labyrinthine >■
structure ... ... ... ... J

Gizzard of Cricket

Ortlioseira arenarea ... ... ,..

Foot of Dytiscus

Sponge, Meyerina clav ij 'or mis

Mr. F. Fitch.

Mr. H. E. Freeman.

>»

Mr. G. H. Fryer.

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Mr.

F.

W.

Gay.

Mr. C. F. George.

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Mr. H. R. Gregory.

Mr. J. W. Groves.

j> >>

Mr. W. Goodwin.

Mr. H. F. Hailes.

>> >>

Mr. W. Hainworth.

Mr. J. D. Hardy.

Mr. G. Hind.

it j»

Mr. C. F. Holland.

»> >»

Mr. J. E. Ingpen.
Dr. W. T. King.

Mr. R. J. Larking.

Mr. C. Le Pelley.
Dr. Matthews.

«> >>

Mr. G. A. Messenger.

Mr. A. D. Michael.

Mr. H. Morland.

» >i

Mr. E. M. Nelson.

Mr. E. T. Newton.

Mr.

M.

D.

Northey.

Mr.

J.

M.

Offord.

>>

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133

Diatoms, Arachnoiiisctis ornatus, in situ on )
Coralline ... ... ... ... )

Magnesium Platinocyanide

Germinated Spore of Lycopodium denticulatum

Longitudinal and transverse sections of Aris-\

tolochia omithocephalus, showing Tyloses...)
Seotions of leaf, petiole and stem of Passi

flo?'a lancifolia ..
Twelve slides illustrating the incubation of ^

the Chick from the 18th hour to the 10th > Mr. W. J. Scofield.

Mr. B. W. Priest.
Mr. W. W. Reeves.

Mr. J. W. Eeed.

}

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»

Mr. W. Smart.

Mr. Alpheus Smith.

Mr. G. J. Smith.

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oay ... ... ••• ... ... j

Hooks of Tcenia set rains

Nicotha astaci, parasite of Lobster

Sections of Echinus spines

Larva of .Echinus microtuberculatus ...

Lava from Etna (Augite, Dolerite)

Diorite (?), South America

Meteorite, United States, &c, &c.

Larva of Corethra plumicornis . . .

Cristatella mucedo

Volatilization and burning of Copper, Iron

Magnesium, and Zinc by electric arc
Section of small intestine of Turkey ...
Section of lung of Prog, Injected
Analyzing crystals of Iodo-sulphate of~)

Quinine ; Crystals of Aconitina ; Lactate > Mr. H. J. Waddington.

of Copper; Kinic Acid ... ... j

Sections of stems of Ampelidea and Bignonia... Mr. F. H. Ward.
Skin from pad of Dog's foot, opaque injection.. . Mr. W. D. Wickes.
Intestine of Jay, „ „ ... „ „

Foot of Spider Mr. J. Willson.

Proboscis of Blow Fly ... ... ... ... „ „

The Museum was open, and received considerable attention from the
members and visitors.

Mr. J. Stocken.

Mr. A. W. Stokes.

Mr. J. W. Tate.
Mr. J. J. Vezey.

April 28th, 1882.— Ordinary Meeting.
T. Charters White, Esq., M.R.C.S., &c, President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
The folio-wing additions to the Library were announced : —

" Proceedings of the Royal Society "

" Journal of the Linnean Society"

" Proceedings of the Geologists' Association"

„ „ Natural History Society")

of Glasgow" )

From the Society.
Mr. T. C. White.
From the Association.

>t

Society.

134

"Annual Report of the

Brighton

and "1
Sussex Natural History Society "... J

,, „ „ Hackney Micro- |

scopical Society" ... ... ... )

Belgium Microscopical ~i

• •• • ■ • • •• J

From the Society.

>>

»»

the

»>

>t

The Editor.

>>

}

>»

>>

The Society.
In exchange.

>>

j>

Canada Government
Department.

Purchased.
«»

M

"Bulletin of

Society"

"Science Gossip"

"The Analyst"

" The Northern Microscopist "
"Proceedings of the American Society of

Microscopists"
" The American Naturalist " ...

„ „ Monthly MicroscopicalJour- 1

Hal «•• ••• • • m J

"Bulletin of the American Museum of

Natural History " ...

" Beport of progress of the Natural History
Survey of Canada," and set of maps in
illustration of the same
" Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science "
" Annals of Natural History " ...
" Micrographic Dictionary "

Dr. Cooke's "Fresh Water Algae"

The thanks of the meeting were voted to the donors.
The President read a letter from Mr. Kitton, " On an Algal form growing
in a Solution of Sulphate of Copper." The slide sent by Mr. Kitton had
unfortunately been broken in the post, but enough remained to enable him
to form an opinion that it was more of the nature of a fungus, such as was
occasionally met with in this kind of Solution. He had frequently met with
these fungoid growths, sometimes in places where they might have beenl east
expected. Once he found some in a solution of Carbolic Acid in Glycerine ;
and at another time he found a lai-ge bottle of Liquor Arsenicalis to contain
a great quantity.

Mr. E. T. Newton asked if the President examined the fungus to which he
referred under the microscope, so as to assure himself that it was really a
fungus, and not a deposit of the flocculent matter which was often seen in
solutions ? In the treatment of disease and of wounds very diluted carbolic
acid was successfully used to destroy fungoid growths, and it seemed
curious that they were found to grow freely in a concentrated solution.

Dr. Matthews said that formerly, for convenience in dispensing, he used
to keep various salts in solution, but experience showed that none of them
could be kept thus for any length of time, all of them developing mycelium.
This was especially noticed to be the case with citric acid or tartaric acid,
and compounds with alkalis. The only thing which seemed to resist the
formation was alcohol.

Mr. Buffham said that a solution containing £ alcohol had been tried, but
it did not prevent the evil ; but he had tried a solution of oamphor in dis-

135

tilled water, and there was no mycelium in that after several years. He
found, however, that it formed on the surface of a saturated solution of
common salt.

Dr. Matthews said that at the time he alluded to he did not use distilled
water, but any that was l'eady to hand.

Mr. Sigsworth said that camphor water had been found to preserve even
a solution of citric acid.

Mr. Spencer thought that distilled water was not always to be relied upon,
for Prof. Tyndall stated in his book on " Moving Matter in the Air," that he
had found Bacteria in nearly all the distilled waters supplied to him by the
chemists.

Mr. Hardy described a method of illuminating crystals and similar objects
by coloured light, termed by him the " Chromatoscope."

Mr. Hainworth inquired if he correctly understood Mr. Hardy to say that
all crystals to be viewed in this way must be mounted dry.

Mr. Hardy said this was so. It would not do to mount them in
balsam.

Mr. Ingpen exhibited a series of diagrams which had been drawn for him
by Mr. W. T. Suffolk to illustrate Professor Abbe's theory of the vision of
minute objects by their diffraction spectra. They were very beautifully
and correctly drawn in their proper proportions, as seen in the micro-
scope.

Mr. Michael made some interesting remarks with reference to a slide which
he exhibited in the room — one of the Chalcididae — a class of insects which
he described as being very remarkable on account of the extraordinary
variations which existed amongst them, and for the wouderful persistence
of their predatory instincts. Sketches on the black board were made in
illustration of the curious development of the antennas.

Dr. Matthews inquired if Mr. Michael had any suspicion as to the special
function of this very curious organ.

Mr. Michael said he was scarcely able to say what its special use might
be. The auditory organs were usually supposed to be in the antennas, and
probably were so, though perhaps nearer the base. He should suppose
that this was more of a tactile organ, its development rendering it of use
to the creature over a comparatively large area; the constant rapid play
of the antennas certainly gave the impression that they were tactile
organs, and that probably they might be necessary to enable the
insects to appreciate the vibrations by means of which they tracked their
prey.

Mr. Ingpen said he had brought for exhibition a slide of Volvox, mounted
in a dilute solution of iodide of potassium, which seemed to promise so well
for the preservation of Yolvox and Desmids, and such like things, that he
should like some one else to try it. He could not tell the exact strength
of the solution, but it was certainly weak ; he believed it was about 5 grains
to the ounce when mixed with the water containing the organisms,
though it might be well to vary the strength according to the condition of
the algse to be treated. The slide which he had brought was of Volvox, in

136

the stage where it had orange spores, in which state it was extremely likely
to be disintegrated ; |the green parts were untouched by the iodide, but the
parts which had become orange were rendered more brilliant, and the preser-
vation, as far as it had gone, seemed very good. The specific gravity of
such a weak solution would be, as nearly as possible, the same as that of
water.*

Mr. Michael inquired if Mr. Ingpen had any experience with other kinds
of Algse, such as Closterium f The two things easiest of all to preserve had
hitherto been Yolvox and Micrasterias, but he should be glad to know if
this new medium had been tested with Closterium. There were some
extremely fine foreign slides which showed Volvox very well indeed, but
other kinds of Desmids were not so well preserved.

Dr. Matthews said that Dr. Cooke relied very much upon mounting these
plants in plain water. Had Mr. Ingpen tried that plan ?

Mr. Ingpen said he had mounted specimens of Desmids in plain water,
but had never succeeded well — there had always been a great deal of
shrinking. Dr. Cooke said truly that if they wanted to name Desmids
they must get rid of the endochrome ; but in this case he wanted to see and
preserve the endochrome. The action upon Closterium would undoubtedly
be greater than on Volvox; but then it varied very much in Volvox. If
they got a sterile specimen they might find it unaltered for months after-
wards, but if it were developing, that would be a very different matter.
Another objection to plain water was that there always seemed to be some
degree of alteration in the tissues, as if by a gradual death. To preserve
these objects effectually they should be killed suddenly. He thought that
the success of the process depended very much upon the exact stage in
which the specimens happened to be.

Mr. Waddington said he did not find the quantity named strong enough to
kill these objects. One thing, however, struck him, and that was how
peculiarly refreshing it seemed to hear of so simple a solution after some of
the heroic mixtures which had of late been recommended. He thought that
the iodide should be as pure as possible, for he believed that in what was
ordinarily sold it was usual to add some alkali.

Votes of thanks to those gentlemen who had made communications to the
meeting were unanimously passed, and announcements of meetings and
excursions for the ensuing month having been made, the meeting terminated
with the usual Conversazione, at which the following objects were ex-
hibited : —

Pappus of Lettuce seed Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Desmids, &c, &c, a gathering from Keston ... Mr. E. Dadswell.
Young Locust (Edipoda cruciata, one day old Mr. F. Enock.
Amoeba difiuens, &c, in a growing slide, \ Mr> w Goodwin.

showing different stages of development J
Stentors ... ... ... ... ... ... Mr. H. R. Gregory.

Objects shown by coloured light (Chromato- ") M T D H d
scope) ... ... ... ... ... j

* The success of this method is doubtful when there is much orgauic matter or iron
in the water. — J. E.I.

137

Eulopus pectinicornis (Chalcididse), with") M- A D M'chael

curiously branched Antenna) ... J

Longitudinal and transverse sections of stem") , ™ .

of Piper nigrum ... ... ... *

Attendance — Members, 49; Visitors, 4.

May 12, 1882. — Conversational Meeting.

The following objects were exhibited : —

Section of Maize seed, showing Spiral fibre ... Mr. F. W. Andrew.
Antheridia on Callithamnion tetricum, a / M T TT "R fPha
Marine Alga ... ... ... ... )

Hydrodictyon in very early stages ; from 1 Mr> j E> Ingpen>
Hampton Court ... ... ... '

Epistylis grandis Mr. H. K. Gregory.

Chelymorpha phyllophorus, Maple Leaf -insect Mr. H. Morland.
Longitudinal and transverse sections of

Mr. J. W. Keed.

Urvillea ferrugmea . . .

Attendance — Members 39.

May 26th, 1882. — Ordinary Meeting.

T. Charters White, Esq., M.R.C.S., &c, President, in the

Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

The following gentlemen were balloted for and duly elected members of

the Club: — Mr. Walter Chapman, Mr. H. Saxon Snell, jun., Mr Geo.
Western.

The following donations, &c, were announced : —

"Proceedings of the Eoyal Society" From the Society.

" Transactions of the Linnean Society," 3rd") -^, ™ p •

Series )

" Journal of the Linnean Society " Mr. T. C. White.

" 24th Report of the East Kent Natural ") ™ a oc - e f

History Society" ... ... ... )

' ' Science Gossip" The Publisher.

M The Northern Microscopist " ... ,, „

" American Monthly Microscopical Journal "... In exchange.

" New Part of Van Heurck's Belgian Diatoms " Pm'chased.

" Annals of Natural History " ... ... ... „

<l Grevillea"

• •• • • • ••• «. • • ••■ j ?

Two Slides of Arachnoidiscvs ... Mr. Priest.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to the donors, and a special vote of
thanks was accorded to Mr. Crisp for bis valuable donation of the " Trans-
actions of the Linnean Society," and for the promise to continue to present
his set to the Club in the future.

138

The Secretary said that Mr. Sigsworth had asked him to bring before the
notice of the members a small clip which he had found very useful for
mounting and other purposes. It had a small curved steel spring screwed
upon a piece of cedar, and was sold by stationers as a paper clip. It
appeared to be more useful in many cases than the American clips, which
had a want of parallelism. In reply to a question, Mr. Sigsworth stated
that the article could be obtained from almost any stationer for a shilling
per dozen.

The President said they were favoured by the presence of Dr. Ralph*
President of the Victoria (Australia) Microscopical Society, and welcomed
him cordially in the name of the Club.

The President said they had received a letter from the President of the
Natal Microscopical Society, accompanied by some diatomaceous earth*
w r hich would be reported upon when it had been examined.

The President read a communication from the Rev. H. J. Fase, describing
a new form of portable microscope, which was sent that evening for exhibi-
tion.

The Secretary exhibited the microscope, and explained its various features
in detail.

The President said he was extremely pleased with this new instrument,
and felt sure that when the members examined it after the meeting they
would agree that it was quite a multum in parvo. One very useful arrange-
ment was that which admitted of the condenser being used also as a dis-
secting lens.

Dr. Ralph, who was called upon by the President, expressed the pleasure
which he felc at being present at a meeting of the Club. He had brought
wath him a specimen of T r allisneria of a species found in Victoria, which he
thought it might be interesting to cultivate in this country. It grew freely
in Sydney, and was altogether much larger than the English species. The
leaves, when fully grown, attained a length of four or five feet, with a
breadth of about an inch, whilst their thiokness was so great that horizontal
sections of the leaves could be cut, and the cyclosis seen in this way to
great advantage. He had grown this plant in Australia, in the open air, in
a window, and found it would stand a temperature of 100° without injury,
but it would not bear the cold of winter in this country if exposed. He had
much pleasure in presenting a specimen of the male plant to the Club. He
believed that male plants were never seen in England, but they had both
in Sydney, and he had brought over specimens of each for the purpose of
cultivation. Another matter which he might mention as being of some
interest was that some years ago he took occasion to examine the material
filling the holes in wood made by wood-boring Larvaa. This consisted of
their excreta. They had in Australia some very large moths — one species
was as much as one ounce in weight — the larvae of which penetrated the
trunks of trees, and as they did so they threw out a large quantity of a
powdery material, which was the woody matter after it had passed through
the intestinal canal of the larvae. If a small portion of this matter were
placed on a slide with a little water, a number of Filarine appeared, and the

139

question was how did they get there ? His own impression was that they
came from the intestinal canal of the larva.

The President thought this an interesting suggestion, and that they ought
to try and trace the matter out. It was very seldom, however, that they
could dissect an insect without finding some sort of parasite inside it. Some
time ago he dissected an earwig, and found that it contained a worm, which
was full of ova.

The President asked Dr. Ralph if he could give them any information as
to his own Microscopical Society ?

Dr. Ralph said they were at present only few in number, but had several
good workers amongst them. The Society was progressing, though slowly.

Dr. Ralph then gave some details respecting some deposits of diatoms.
Some years ago he found two very large deposits near Melbourne. At that
time a railway was being made across a swamp, and, the difficulties being
great, the work went on very slowly, and a sound foundation was only
obtained when the workmen had filled in 40 vertical feet of solid earth.
Amongst the earth which was dug out of the swamp was a quantity of
glutinous material which adhered to the spades like slime. He took some
of this home for the purpose of examination, and when it was dry he found
that he could blow it away in a diatomaceous cloud. This gelatinous matter
appeared to be recent in the swamp.

Mr. J. D. Hardy described a peculiar condition of Volvox which he had
found at Snaresbrook. It was called Volvox stellatus by some authorities.
Drawings in illustration were made upon the board.

Mr. Ingpen said that Mr. Hardy appeared to have found a very
interesting stage of Volvox, what he had described being the germ cell at
the exact time of the expulsion of the spores. It was described and
figured in " Carpenter on the Microscope," where it was called " Fertilized
germ cell or oospore." It was a stage not often met with.

Mr. Hardy said he found it in the middle of a bed of JVitella in fruit.

The President announced that the date of the Excursionists' annual dinner
was altered to Saturday, June 10th ; also that at the next meeting of the
Club nominations for Officers and Committee for the ensuing year would be
made, and he hoped members would come prepared with names of candidates.

The proceedings terminated with the usual Conversazione, at which the
following objects were exhibited : —

Aphis from Ivy ... Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Orthoseira arenarea . . ... ... ... Mr. W. J. Brown.

Volvox — specimens mounted in glycerine jelly Mr. E. Dadswell.

Floscularia, Epistylis, Melicerta, &c Mr. H. R. Gregory.

Parasite of Flamingo Mr. T. S. Morten.

Transverse Section of stem of Lilium auratum ,, „

Attendance — Members, 50; Visitors, 2.

Journ. Q. M. C, Series II., No. 3.

M

140

June 9th, 1882. — Conversational Meeting.

The following objects were exhibited : —
Section of Shell of Periwinkle, Polarized
Fresh water Alga (sp. ?) from Walthamstow ...
Polyxenuslagurus
Volvox stellatus ...
Germ cells of Volvox globator ...
Hair of Seal, Phoca vitulina, Polarized
Tube dwelling Diatoms, Encystoma paradoxum
Batrachosjpermum, Nitella, &c, from Stroud ...
Section of leaf of Draccpna
Meristein zone in stem of do., showing ~)
thickening of stem by formation of new >
fibro-vascular bundles and ground tissue J
Six slides of Calcium acetate ...
Actiaojptychus Grundelerii

Mr. F. W. Andrew.
Mr. T. H. Buff ham.
Mr. A. L. Corbett.
Mr. J. D. Hardy.
Mr. J. E. Ingpen.
Mr. T. S. Morten.
Mr. J. M. Offord.
Dr. T. Partridge.
Mr. J. W. Reed.

>>

»>

Mr,
Mr.

W. D. Smith.
G. Sturt.

Attendance— Members, 36 ; Visitors, 5,

5>

>>

»»

»

>>

>»

the Society.

June 23rd, 1882. — Ordinary Meeting.

T. Charters White, Esq., M.R.C.S., L.D.S., &c, President,

in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding Meeting were read and confirmed.
Mr. Thomas Campbell, Dr. Alex. Garden, Mr. John Alex. Ollard, and Mr.
Stephen Trinder were balloted for and duly elected Members of the Club.

The following additions to the Library and Cabinet were announced, and
the thanks of the Meeting voted to the respective donors : —

w Proceedings of the Ro} r al Society" ... From the Society.

"Journal of the Linnean Society " ... „ Mr. T. C. White.

" Journal of the Royal Microscopical")
Society" ... ... ... )

" Journal of the Microscopical Society of)
Victoria" ... ... ... )

11 Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural")
History Society " ... ... )

"Bulletin of the Belgian Microscopical")

Society" }

" Science Gossip "

"The Analyst"

"The Northern Microscopist" ...
" The American Naturalist "
" The American Monthly Microscopical )
Journal" ... ... ... )

" Annals of Natural History "

" Micrographic .Dictionary," Part XII.

»

>>

»

the Publisher,
the Editor.

In exchange.

»>

>>

Purchased.

141

A scries of Hydroid Zoophytes illustrating*) pK)m Dr M a Cooke<
Dr. Hincks' Treatise ... ... )

Five slides of Parasites... ... ... „ Mr. H. E. Freeman.

Six slides of Calcium acetate ... ... ,, Mr. W. D. Smith.

The Secretary placed on the table a bottle of Miller's Caoutchouc cement
for mounting purposes, which it was stated was well adapted for forming
cells suitable for all kinds of media. He also placed on the table two cells
formed with this cement to illustrate its use. He remarked that the cement
could be diluted with absolute alcohol, should it be required more liquid.

The President said he had examined the cells, which had been made a
fortnight, and the rings were still elastic, which was a great advantage in
mounting, especially in glycerine.

The President referred to the donation of two volumes of specimens,
comprising a series of Hydroid Zoophytes, presented by Dr. M. C. Cooke,
and asked the members to pass a special vote of thanks to Dr. Cooke, which
was unanimously responded to.

The Secretary gave notice on behalf of the Committee of a proposed re-
arrangement of the sentences of Rule III., in order to remove all ambiguity as
to the respective nominations by the Committee and the Members. In
another Society that had adopted the same wording as oura a question had
arisen which was only settled by a long and elaborate nomination.

The proposed rearrangement would make the first part of Rule III. read
thus: — "III. That at the ordinary meeting in June nominations be made of
candidates|tofill the offices of President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretaries,
Reporter, Librarian, and Curator, and vacancies on the Committee. That
the President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretaries, Reporter, Librarian
and Curator be nominated by the Committee, and that the nominations for
vacancies on the Committee be made by the Members, by resolutions duly
moved and seconded, no member being entitled to propose more than one
candidate."

The President, referring to the approaching Annual Meeting, announced
that the time had arrived for nomination of Officers for the ensuing year.
The Committee had, as usual, nominated the President, Vice-Presidents, and
Officers, namely, as President Dr. M. C. Cooke, as Vice-Presidents Mr.
Hildebrand Ramsden, Mr. Chas. Stewart, Mr. T. C. White, and Dr. Cobbold ;
Hon. Treasurer, Mr. Gay ; Hon. Secretary, Mr. Ingpen ; Hon. Secretary for
Foreign Correspondence, Mr. H. F. Hailes ; Hon. Reporter, Mr. R. T. Lewis ;
Hon. Librarian, Mr. Alpheus Smith ; Hon. Curator, Mr. C. Emery.

In pursuance of the rules the following members of the Committee would
retire, namely, Mr. Reed, Mr. Sigsworth, Mr. Hailes, Mr. Goodinge, and Dr.
Cobbold.

The President having invited nominations to fill these vacancies, the
following gentlemen were duly proposed as members of the Committee: —
Mr. H. R. Gregory, proposed by Mr. Freeman, seconded by Mr. Dunning.
Mr. J. D. Hardy „ Mr. DadsAvell „ Mr. Gay.

Mr. J. W. Groves „ Mr. Reed ,, Mr. Dadswell.

Mr. E. Jaques „ Mr. Hailes „ Mr. Delferier.

142

Mr. D.W.Greennough, proposed by Mr. A. Smith, seconded by Mr. Priest.
Mr. W. J. Sco field ,, Mr. Emery „ Mr Eeed.

Mr. E. M. Nelson „ Mr. Newton „ Mr. Groves.

The Secretary announced that the names of these candidates would be
placed on the ballot paper in the order determined by lot by the President as
provided by the rules, and not alphabetically.

The President announced that the Committee had appointed Mr. Hain-
worth as Auditor on their behalf, and he requested the members to nominate
a second on behalf of the Club.

Mr. Dobson was proposed as Auditor on behalf of the Club by Mr. Oxley,
seconded by Mr. Jaques, and elected nem. con,

Mr. Nelson exhibited and described a new objective, constructed by Messrs.
Powell and Lealand. He had been much engaged in examining various
minute organisms, such as Bacteria, which he had treated as diatoms or
other test objects, and resolved them, as it were. It would be very important
if morphological distinctions could be made out in these organisms, and
certain Bacteria or Micrococci could be identified with a particular disease.
The lens he was using was one of Messrs. Powell and Lealands l-25th wide
angle-glasses with two fronts. In using it he was greatly struck with the
increase of working distance on reducing the aperture. With an aperture of
1*40 the objective worked through tolerably thick cover glass ; with an aper-
ture of 1*14 it would work through a test diatom slip easily, so that the slide
could be reversed, and the object viewed from the back. The l-25th objec-
tive of 120° balsam angle worked through glass -006 easily. When using
Moller's type slide, which had a rather thick cover, the definition was re-
markably fine. It resolved Ampliiplenra pellucida with direct central light
through an achromatic condenser, without slot or stop. He remarked that
if the aperture were over 1"25 the difficulty of making the objective was
enormously increased. The front lens, as at present constructed, was more
than a hemisphere ; it was skilfully fixed to a piece of thin glass '003 in
thickness, and they all knew the difficulty of handling such delicate glass
without breaking it. Messrs. Powell, however, cemented the front lens of
their new objective to a piece of this glass, which was then fitted to the
objective. Mr. Nelson then described an adaptation of the fine adjustment
to the substage. In working with high powers he found it very necessary to
get an exact adjustment of the condenser, and this was extremely difficult
with the ordinary coarse adjustment. In one instance he was endeavouring
to show bovine tubercle in a large cell. It was a very thick section, and the
object to be shown was extremely minute. He had thoroughly examined the
object at home, but when he got to the meeting it took him a quarter of an
hour before he could hit off the exact focus with the coarse adjustment. If
the object was the smallest degree within or outside the focus of the con-
denser it instantly disappeared. The fine adjustment was also useful as a
protection in using the condenser with thin .slips. It was just as dangerous
to rack up the condenser as it w r as to screw down the objective. The fine
adjustment consisted of a cone at the end of a screw ; when the screw was
turned in, the cone pushed up the substage, which was pressed down by a
spring. On withdrawing the cone, the spring pushed the substage down.

143

He was then exhibiting AmpTwpIeura pellucida under the microscope with a
power of 2,300 diameters, and it was distinctly beaded in a very striking
manner.

The President observed that it was a pleasure to the Club to have Mr.
Nelson come up to show his fine preparations, and invited remarks or
questions on the new lens.

Mr. Ingpen said with regard to the brass and glass portion of Mr. Nelson's
observations it certainly was difficult to overrate the importance of the pro-
duction of such objectives as those he had mentioned. All fine and delicate
work would have to be verified by oil immersion objectives, which were the
greatest advance of the last few years, and rendered a great deal of the work
of examination and recognition of minute organisms easy, which a little
while ago was practically impossible. It was a good illustration of the
delicacy of such work, that it was found necessary to fit a fine adjustment to
the achromatic condenser. Many fine achromatic condensers were at present
almost useless owing to the imperfect rack adjustments of the substage, which
were hardly ever sufficiently well made.

The President inquired if Mr. Nelson had used fluids of high refractive
index for immersion glasses, or was there any particular difficulty in doing
so ? He remembered that several years ago Sir David Brewster tried to make
lenses of very dense fluids.

Mr. Nelson replied that he had no experience of anything besides ordinary
oil of cedar and oil of fennel. He had not tried oil of pimento.

Mr. Ingpen remarked that with regard to that question the principles were
now pretty well understood. The fluid for a homogeneous lens was required
to be of the same refractive index and dispersive power as the crown
glass of which the front lens was made. With regard to the visibility of
objects in fluids of various refractive indices, that point was also governed by
well-known principles. In the case of a diatom the refractive index of
which would be about 1'4, if placed in air we got a contrast between the refrac-
tive index of air 1 and the diatom 1*4. If the diatom were placed in water,
with refractive index of 1*33, there was less contrast. In balsam or oil of
turpentine a delicate diatom became almost invisible. If the refractive index
of the mounting medium were much increased, as in the case of phosphorus
of refractive index 2*1, a very great contrast was obtained in the other
direction ; and the diatom would be very visible by this contrast, with the
additional advantage that the whole aperture of the immersion lens was
used, which was not the case with an object mounted in air.

Dr. Ralph, of Victoria, South Australia, made some remarks upon the
action of hydrocyanic acid combined with ammonia on the tissues of certain
plants, for instance the vine. A thin slice of the plant when very tender
showed a remarkable coloration, varying from the edge inwards. In certain
vascular tissues the treatment gave a distinct red or claret colour, which
passed through the tubes from one end to the other, giving an artificial in-
jection. The Virginian Creeper showed a centre of a bright ruby colour.
After the lapse of a quarter of an hour all this colour disappeared. The
only explanation he could offer was the action of iron in the tissue.
Formic acid in its nascent form attacked the iron and gave the transient

144

coloration. Formic acid alone gave some coloration, but it was not so vivid
as when ammonia was added. He had tried the experiment with a number
of different plants ; all gave some change, but none equal to the vine.

The President inquired if he had tried the green leaf of the Virginian
Creeper.

Dr. Ralph replied that the cells in the leaf had come to a perfect state,
and they would not respond. It was the early sap which was charged with
something that gave the colour. If a thin section of the mid-rib of the
Creeper were used the same appearance would be obtained. The action of
the hydrocyanic acid on the tissues seemed to point to some action on the
iron.

Mr. J. W. Groves, referring to the trouble often experienced in cleaning
dirty slides, said that he did not care to use vitrol or other strong acids. He had
tried Hudson's extract of soap, which hurt nothing, and cleaned the slides to
perfection. If the slides were put into a solution of the extract, and left
for a few days, the balsam, cement, and everything else would clean off
beautifully.

The President announced the excursions and meetings for the ensuing
month, and the meeting closed with the usual Conversazione, when the
following objects were exhibited : —
Eggshell of Crocodile ...
Trichodactylus osmice, Bee-acarns
Bacillus of Tuberculosis (from sputum
from human lung), showing the
beaded structure with extreme clearness
Transverse Stria3 on Amphipleura pellu-
cida, mounted dry on cover, shown by
accurately centred Achromatic Con-
denser without slot or stop
These objects were exhibited under a new
l-2oth inch oil immersion objective,
N.A. 1-38 (130° balsam angle) by
Messrs. Powell and Lealandj

Winged petiole of Citrus aurantium, show-
ing essential oil glands, &c.
Section of petiole of Drosera rotundifolia .

Mr. F. W. Andrew.
Mr. H. E. Freeman.

- Mr. E. M. Nelson.

}

Mr. J. W. Reed.
Mr. F. Wood.

Attendance— Members, 54 ; Visitors, 5.

July 14th, 1882. — Conversational Meeting.

The President.

The following objects were exhibited : —
Marine Annelid (sp. ?) ...
Skin of Scyllium stellare ... ... ,,

Collections of Plant Sections ... ... Mr. T. Curties.

Phthirius — Two projections provided with \ \r . u y Round

Hairs

I Mi

145

Feet of Foreign Geometric Spiders — "J

NepUla chrysugaster and N. rivulata, > Mr._H. E. Freeman.

showing peculiar serrations on claws )
Transverse section of Elder, stained ... Mr. H. K. Gregory.

Banatra linearis, three and twelve hours old Mr. J. D. Hardy.
Hydrodictyon of curiously deformed growth Mr. J. E. Ingpen.
Wing of Orange-tipped Butterfly... ... Mr. T. S. Morten.

Amjphipleura pellucida, shown with Zeiss') Mr E ^ JSTelson.

oil immersion objective, N.A. 1*25 )

Section of petiole of Viburnum lantana ... Mr. J. W. Reed.
Section through folded and opposite)

leaves of ditto ... ... )

Section of young stem of ditto ... ... , ,

Attendance— Members, 40 ; Visitors, 7.

July 28, 1882. — Annual General Meeting.

T. Charters White, Esq., M.R.O.S., L.D.S., &c, President,

in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
Dr. W. C. Ondaatje and Mr. B. Williams were balloted for and duly
elected members of the Club.

The following additions to the Library and Cabinet were announced : —
•' .Proceedings of the Hoyal Society" ... From the Society.
"Journal of the Linnean Society " ... ,, Mr. T. C. White.

" Proceedings of the Bristol Natural History"* , , o • .

Society" ... ... ... )

" Proceedings of the Geologists' Association" ,, the Association.
" Science Gossip " ... ... ... ,, the Publisher.

" Eleventh Annual Report of the Chester ) ,, Sociptv

Society of Natural Science "... )

" Journal of the Postal Microscopical Society " „ the Society.
"The Analyst" ... ... ... „ the Publisher.

"American Naturalist" ... ... In exchange.

" American Monthly Microscopical Journal " „

"Annals of Natural History " ... ... Purchased.

Parts of " The Micrographic Dictionary " „

" A. C. Cole's Studies in Micro Science" ... ,,

" Challenger Reports," Vol. iv. ... ... „

12 Slides of Micro-photographs by the latej FrQm Mrgi Moginie#
W r m. Moginie ... ... J

Seven slides of preparations of the Embryo \ ,, The Dinner Com-

Chick ... ... ... ) mittee.

The President, in moving a vote of thanks to the several Donors of books
and slides, asked for a special recognition of the valuable and interesting
collection of Micro-photographs presented by Mrs. Moginie. Mr. Moginie

146

was one of the earliest practisers of micro-photograph}'', and these specimens
were therefore specially interesting. He also asked for their special thanks
to the Dinner Committee for their valuable donation.

These votes of thanks were carried unanimously.

The President, in making the usual announcements for the ensuing month
referred to the whole day excursion to Whitstable fixed for the following
day, for which Mr. Hembry had made special arrangements. Mr. Siebert
Saunders would take charge of a dredging party, and others would be able
to explore various interesting features of the neighbourhood.

This concluded the proceedings of the Ordinary Meeting, and the business
of the Annual General Meeting was then proceeded with.

The President read the amendment to Rule III., as moved by the Secre-
tary at the last meeting, and the amendment was put to the meeting in the
usual way, and carried unanimously.

The President appointed Mr. M. Hawkins Johnson and Mr. G. D. Brown
to act as Scrutineers.

The Secretary read the Seventeenth Annual Report of the Committee.

Mr. Hembry, in moving the adoption of the Report, regretted that so few
members attended the ordinary meetings of the Club ; he hoped for im-
provement in that respect during the year. It was satisfactory to see the
library increased, and that the Club maintained its numbers. He had much
pleasure in moving the adoption of the Report.

Mr. Hardy seconded the motion, which was carried unanimously.

The Secretary read the Treasurer's annual statement of account.

Mr. F. A. Parsons proposed that the Treasurer's account be passed.

Mr. Wm. Goodwin seconded the motion, which was put and carried
unanimously.

The President then delivered his annual address, in which he took a retro-
spective view of the science of optics, especially in relation to microscopy,
from the earliest times, tracing the progress of microscopical research,
together with the gradual improvements in the microscope down to the
present time.

Mr. Dadswell moved a vote of thanks to the President for the address they
had listened to with so much pleasure.

Mr. Dunning seconded the motion, which was carried with acclamation.

The President in acknowledging the vote of thanks, referred to the diffi-
culty there was in getting up an address, nearly every subject having been
dealt with by others, so he thought he would go back and show that in the
old times they were not content with what they knew ; and, just as we were
now, were always striving after further discoveries and better results.

The President then announced the result of the ballot to be as follows : —

President — Dr. M. C. Cooke.

Vice-Presidents— Dr. Cobbold, Messrs. Hildebrand Ramsden,

Charles Stewart, T. Charters White.
Five New Members op the Committee — Messrs. W. J. Scofield,

J. D. Hardy, E. Jaques, E. M. Nelson, and J.

W. Groves.

147

Hon. Treasurer — Mr. F. W. Gay.

Hon. Secretary— Mr. J. E. Ingpen.

Hon. Secretary for Foreign Correspondence— Mr. H. F. Hailes.

Hon. Reporter- Mr. R. T. Lewis.

Hon. Librarian — Mr. Alplieus Smith.

Hon. Curator — Mr. Charles Emery.

Mr. Wm. Goodwin expressed a desire that more facilities of access to the
books in the Library might bo afforded to members. It had no doubt
occurred to many members who desired information on a particular point,
that there was some difficulty in obtaining the literature on the subject,
which was often scattered about among the scientific periodicals, and he
thought that members might have more facilities for taking down and
examining the books in the library at the meetings of the Club. At present
no doubt the Librarian was strictly right in keeping the library closed, but
he thought more facilities might be given to members to refer to the books
themselves.

The President was sure the Librarian would endeavour to meet the con-
venience of every one applying to him for books for temporary reference.

The Secretary remarked that in other societies it had been found very in-
convenient for the library to be open, and members to take down books and
replace them, frequently in wrong places. The Librarian would, he was
sure, give every possible facility to members who wished to refer to the books
consistently with the proper regulation and care of the library.

Mr. Watkins said he was afraid the suggestion he was about to make
would meet with even less favour than the previous one. He considered that
it would be a great convenience to many members if a plan could be adopted'
for circulating the unbound periodicals, such as serial works, which appeared
month by month, among such members as might desire to read them.
This was done in some other societies. A list of the members to whom the
journals were to be sent could be attached to the book, and each gentleman
on the list would read the book and pass it on to the next on the list, and the
last named member would return it to the Librarian. One of the first
objects of a library was to consult the convenience of the readers. He
considered it should not be looked upon solely with regard to the safety of
the books, which should be the duty and care of all the members.

Mr. Waller suggested that the question must be left to the Committee.

Mr. Hopkins observed that the Librarian already had plenty of work, and
suggested that he should be voted a salary before giving him more duties to
perform.

The President spoke in complimentary terms of the excellent arrangement
of the library, and remarked that he did not think any salary would reward
the Librarian so well as the heartfelt approval of the members.

The President then vacated the chair in favour of his successor, Dr. Cooke,
who was cordially received.

Dr. Cooke said he thought he felt rather nervous, but the kind reception
he received led him to expect that the Club would have every consideration
for every mistake he might happen to make during the coming year. He

148

felt some satisfaction in taking his position. They had had eleven
Presidents since 18^5. Of that number nine were members of or associated
in some intimate way with the profession which had the credit of helping
people into the world and out of it. He did not belong to the majority. He
felt some satisfaction that, as a somewhat representative man, he belonged to
the minority. Then, again, only one of the past Presidents was a botanist,
the other ten were zoologists, or professed zoologists ; therefore being a pro-
fessed botanist, that branch of science would be somewhat represented in
himself. There was another curious coincidence. After the first five Presi-
dents came Dr. Braithwaite, after five more he occupied that position, so once
in six years they had a botanist occupying that chair. He looked for their
support, and he should try to carry out his old rule, " Whatever was worth
doing was worth trying to do well."

Mr. J. C. Fox moved a vote of thanks to the Officers of the Society for their
services during the past year.

Mr. Parsons seconded the vote, which was put to the meeting and carried
unanimously.

The President, on behalf of the meeting, proposed a vote of thanks to the
Auditors and the gentlemen who had acted as Scrutineers that evening, which
was proposed and passed in the usual manner.

The President, in moving a vote of thanks to the Council of University
College for their continued permission to hold the meetings of the Club in
their Library, observed that he was glad that one of the earliest of his acts
as President was to move this vote of thanks. It was many years since they
had removed from their little room in Piccadilly to come to the College.
They had during the whole period enjoyed the closest intimacy with some of
the College authorities, and had held their meetings in that admirable apart-
ment, and if the thanks of any Society were due to any such foster parents,
he thought the thanks of that Society were due to the authorities of
University College for their kindness during such a long period.

The vote of thanks was passed unanimously.

The meeting closed with the usual Conversazione, and the following
object was exhibited : —

Foot of Leptogaster cylindricus — a speci-")
men in which the usual pads are want- v Mr. H. E. Freeman,
ing (Sc. Gos. xii. p. 157) .. )

Attendance — Members, 54 ; Visitors, 5.

149

On the Estimation of the Numbers of Foraminifera found

in Chalk.

By M. C. Cooke, M.A., A.L.S., President.
{Read August 25th, 1882.)

Having thought that it would be of advantage to place on record
the result of my calculations of the number of foraminifera found
in Kentish Chalk, and an opportunity now presenting itself of in-
troducing the subject, I may premise by stating, that the investiga-
tions were made some fifteen years since, although the details were
never printed ; and subsequent, but less complete, estimates lead me
to infer that the conclusions are substantially correct.

In order to test the accuracy of other observers, as well as to
procure some new determinations of the number of organisms, ap-
proximately, to be found in the chalk, I took one ounce of chalk from
the jnt and washed away the lighter fragments by continued wash-
ings, until I obtained a sediment of nearly pure foraminiferous shells ;
half of this I cleaned as much as possible by boiling in caustic
potash, and ultimately found that I had enough material to mount
190 microscopical slides, each of which contained upwards of 1,000
jjerfect shells, so that in one ounce of chalk I had isolated 400,000
shells. Afterwards I washed another ounce more carefully, and
calculated that I had then obtained upwards of half a million of
entire shells, without reckoning the fragments which had been
washed away, or the thousands probably, that had been decanted
oft 1 with the water in 40 or 50 washings. Hence I am convinced
that I am very far short of the maximum when I name half a
million of Foraminifera as contained in every ounce of chalk from
that pit. The little lump of chalk which I procured for these
experiments weighed 16 pounds or 256 ounces, and consequently
contained the shells of one hundred and twenty-eight millions of
Foraminifera — a number easily named, easily written, but by no
means so easy to imagine ; a number which it would occupy a

Journ. Q. M. C, Series II., No. 4. n

150' M. C. COOKE ON THE ESTIMATION OF

man for ten years to count, even if he could count sixty per minute
for twelve hours daily.

Ehrenberg calculated that there are one million and one third of
organisms in a cubic inch of chalk, and this is, without doubt, very
nearly correct. My block of chalk contains, roughly, about 216
cubic inches, and according to Ehrenberg* s calculation would con-
tain 288 millions of shells ; my calculation, derived by another
process, was 256 millions, and this was made before I was aware of
Frofessor Ehrenberg's computation, and serves to strengthen my
position, not only that I am below the actual number, but that I
am very near the correct number. If, therefore, I adhere to my
own calculation, it will be from a desire not to exaggerate. I must
think that these two independent calculations greatly strengthen
each other, and are enough to establish the fact that between one
million and a quarter and one million and a third of Foraminiferous
shells are contained in each cubic inch of Kentish Chalk.

To communicate some idea of the vast number of shells contained
in one ounce of chalk, we will suppose that each shell were as large
as the shell of the common garden snail (Helix aspersd). If such
were the case, and these shells were placed side by side, then the
half million shells in one ounce of chalk would form an unbroken
line of twelve miles in length, or if we take the whole of the shells
contained in the lump I spoke of just now, and reckon them after
the same rate at 128 millions, then, if they were as large as snail
shells, and were placed in a line, that line of shells would be 3,072
miles in length, and would occupy an express train seventy-seven
hours to go from one end to the other, at the continuous rate of
forty miles an hour.

It would be worse than folly to attempt any calculation of the
myriads of Foraminifera which are entombed in the chalk beds of
England alone, without reference to the similar beds in continental
Europe. The chalk pit from whence my specimens were derived
is situated at Swanscombe in Kent, and the present firm inform
me that, from this pit they have obtained more than half a million
tons of chalk, or 561,895 cubic yards. Figures would fail to con-
vey any idea of the number of Foraminifera which this single firm
has disturbed and removed from their last resting-place. These
minute shells would require 150 of most of them placed side by
side to extend over one-twelfth of an inch, and if we take the
commonest form — Glubigevina — the diameter of which is about

THE NUMBERS OF FORAMINIFERA FOUND IN CHALK. 151

yj^j of an inch, it would require nearly ten millions placed end to
end to reach a mile. Taking this, then, as the basis of our calcula-
tions, we shall find that our Kentish firm have dug from this chalk
pit Foraminifera sufficient, minute as they are, to extend for, at the
least, 1,006,915,840 miles. From one chalk pit, out of many
hundreds in active operation, one manufacturer of lime and cement
has, within about a quarter of a century, dug out the shells of
these minute animals, each one of which is nearly invisible to
the naked eye, in sufficient quantity to reach more than a thousand
millions of miles, adopting a moderate calculation ; yet even this
is a number more vast than our minds can grasp — what therefore
must be the number included in the white cliffs of Dover — in all
the chalk beds of Kent and Sussex ?

.52

On a Quick-acting Adapter for Microscotical Objectives.

By E. M. Nelson.
{Read September 2, 1882.)

It is obvious to everyone that the present method of screwing
or unscrewing objectives is a very tedious one.

To remove this objection I have thought of several devices
which I was obliged to abandon because they would not be inter-
changeable with existing arrangements.

The plan which I now bring before you has no such objection.
It was suggested to me by the method employed by the French in
closing the breech of their breech -loading ordnance. It consists in
simply cutting away three portions of the Society's screw in the
nose piece and three similar portions in the objective. To fix on
an objective it is merely necessary to push it home in the nose-
piece and give it one- sixth of a turn to the right ; a similar turn to
the left will as readily release it.

In order that these altered nose-pieces and objectives may be
made interchangeable with one another, all that is required is that
similar portions of the screws shall be cut away.

To insure this I have had a template made by Messrs. Powell
and Lealand, which I have much pleasure in presenting to the
Club.

A mark should be made on the objective to shew the proper
position for its insertion in the nose-piece.

I propose that this mark be made on the front of the nose-piece,
and a similar one on that side of the objective which is to be placed
in a line with the front of the nose-piece at the time it is in-
serted.

ADVANTAGES.

This arrangement appears to me to possess the following ad-
vantages : —

The rapidity with which objectives may be changed.

It can be applied without interfering with existing arrangements.

It can be made interchangeable.

E. M. NELSON ON MICROSCOPICAL OBJECTIVES. 153

The alteration will not interfere with the interchangeability of
the parts so altered with those that have not been altered.

No new apparatus is required.

The centering* of the objectives is not in the least disturbed.

The change can be made with nearly the same rapidity as
with the double or triple nose-piece, the objectionable weight of
which is avoided.

The rapidity of fixing is of use in renewing the fluid when work-
ing with immersion objectives.

DISADVANTAGES.

It will not be interchangeable because the existing arrange-
ments are not interchangeable.

The objectives must be inserted in the nose-piece in one position.

Care must be exercised in turning a stiff adjustment collar in a
direction that will unscrew the objective.

[Note. — This is a disadvantage which to a great extent applies to
existing arrangements, for screw collars are only fitted to high
powers and wide angled lenses which have short-working distances.
If care, therefore, were not taken in turning a stiff adjustment
collar in a direction that would unscrew the lens, it would soon be
screwed down on the cover glass.]

Persons who are unskilful in handling mechanical appliances will
perhaps find some trouble in acquiring facility in using it.

154

On the Method of Using Abbe's Test-plate.

By Dr. C. Zeiss, of Jena.
(Communicated ly J. E. Ingpen, September 22, 1882.)

The test-plate is exclusively designed for the examination of ob-
jectives with reference to the correction of spherical and chromatic
aberration, and for estimating the thickness of cover-glass for which
the spherical aberration is most efficiently corrected. The test-plate
consists of a series of six cover glasses, silvered on their under sur-
faces, and ranging in thickness from 0*09 mm. to 0"24 mm.,
cemented side by side on a slide. The thickness of each cover is
written on the silver coating.

Groups of parallel lines are cut through the silver ; these are so
coarsely ruled that they may easily be resolved by the lowest powers ;
but, from the extreme thinness of the silvering, their contours afford
a very delicate test for the most powerful and wide-apertured
objectives.

To examine an objective of large aperture, the plates are to be
focussed in succession, observing each time the quality of the image
in the centre of the field, and the variation produced by using
alternately central and the most oblique illumination. When per-
fect correction for spherical aberration exists for the cover-glass
thickness of the plate under examination, the contours of the lines
in the centre of the field appear perfectly sharp by oblique illumina-
tion, without nebulous doubling or indistinctness of the fine
irregularities of the edges. If after exactly adjusting the objective
for oblique light the illumination is made central, no alteration of
the adjustment should be necessary to show the contours with equal
sharpness.

If an objective fulfils these conditions with any one of the plates,
it is free from spherical aberration when used with cover-glasses of
that thickness ; on the other hand, if every plate shows nebulous
doublings, or a confused indistinct appearance of the edges of the
silver lines with oblique illumination, or if the objective requires a

DR. C. ZEISS ON THE METHOD OF USING ABBE's TEST-PLATE. 155

different adjustment to get equal sharpness with central as with
oblique light, then the spherical corrections are more or less im-
perfect.

Nebulous doubling with oblique illumination indicates over-
correction of the marginal zone ; want of sharpness of the edges,
without marked nebulosity, indicates under-correction of this zone ;
the alteration of the adjustment for oblique and central illumination
— that is, difference of level between the image in the peripheral and
central portions of the lens system — points to insufficient concurrence
of the separate zones, which maybe due to either an average under or
over-correction, or to irregularity in the conveyance of the rays.

The test of chromatic correction is based on the character of the
colour bands which are visible by oblique illumination. With good
correction the edges of the silver lines in the centre of the field
should show but narrow colour bands in the complimentary colours
of the secondary spectrum, namely, on one side yellow green to
apple green, on the other violet to rose. The more perfect the
correction of the spherical aberration the clearer this colour band
appears.

To obtain obliquity of illumination extending to the marginal
zone of the objective, and a rapid interchange from oblique to central
light, Abbe's illuminating apparatus is very efficient, as it is only
necessary to move the diaphragm in use vertically nearer to, or
further from the axis by the rack and pinion provided for the purpose.
For the examination of immersion objectives, whose aperture, as a
rule, is larger than 180° in air, and homogeneous immersion ob-
jectives which considerably exceed this, it will be necessary to bring
the under surface of the test-plate into contact with the upper lens
of the illuminator by means of a drop of water, glycerine, or oil. In
this case the change from central to oblique light may be easily
effected by the ordinary concave mirror, but with immersion lenses
of large aperture, it is impossible to reach the marginal zone by this
method, and the best effect has to be searched for after each altera-
tion of the direction of the mirror. For the examination of objec-
tives of smaller angular aperture (under 40° — 50°), we may obtain
all the necessary data for the estimation of the spherical and
chromatic corrections by placing the concave mirror so far to one
side that one edge of it is about in the line of the axis, and there-
fore that the incident cone of rays only fills one half of the aperture
of the objective, when the sharpness of the contours and the cha-

156 DR. C. ZEISS ON THE METHOD OF USING ABBE's TEST-PLATE.

racter of the colour bands can be easily estimated. Differences in
the thickness of the cover-glass within the ordinary limits are
scarcely noticeable with such objectives. It is of fundamental im-
portance, in employing the test as above described, to have brilliant
illumination, and to use an eye-piece of high power.

When, from practice, the eye has learnt to recognise the finer
differences in the quality of the contour images, this method of in-
vestigation gives very trustworthy results, and differences in thick-
ness of cover glasses of OOl mm. to O02 mm. can be recognised
with objectives of 2 mm. or 3 mm. focus. With oblique illumina-
tion the light must always be thrown perpendicularly to the
direction of the lines.

The quality of the image outside the axis has no bearing on
spherical and chromatic correction in the strict sense of the term.
Indistinctness of the contours towards the borders of the field of
vision arise, as, of rule, from unequal magnification of the different
zones of the objective ; colour bands in the peripheral portion (witli
good colour correction in the middle) are caused by the unequal
magnification of the different coloured images.

Imperfections of this kind, improperly called "curvature of the
field," are shown to a greater or less extent in the best objectives
when the aperture is considerable.

I - r-

Note on a Specimen of Bacillus tuberculosus prepared

by Dr. Gibbes' method.

By G. 0. Karop, M.R.C.S., &o.

{Communicated September 22, 1882.)

Although, as a general rule, I am adverse to the discussion of
medical topics in a non-medical society, I thought that as Mr.
dirties had kindly offered to show a specimen of Bacillus tuber-
culosus for me, it would be but right on my part to say a few words
concerning it, if I were called upon to do so. As many of you are
doubtless aware, the theory of the bacterial origin of disease is at
present occupying the attention of scientists and pathologists in all
parts of the world, and although it is comparatively quite a new
idea, the literature of the subject has already become immense. It
may well, too, engage the sympathy of the laity, for no other theory
seems so hopeful as this to give us a clue towards the abolition of
many diseases which affect all conditions and classes of the human
race.

Everybody has heard or read something of the researches of
Pasteur and others on the subject of fowl-cholera, spirillum or
splenic fever, &c, in sheep and other domestic animals, and there-
fore I need only say that the present tendency of investigation in
this direction is to show that every specific disease or group of
diseases is characterised by a special bacillus, microzyme or germ
which developes rapidly in the blood or tissues and may so pervert
nutrition or upset function as to destroy life.

The majority, if not the whole, are contagious or capable of in-
oculation, and not the least wonderful thing about some of them at
least, is the fact that after they have been cultivated or grown in
successive crops, in some suitable medium, they lose their fatal
character, and if they are then inoculated, only produce mild
symptoms, and are preventative against an attack of the original
form of the disease.

Recently, Koch, of Berlin, one of the most eminent investigators
in this direction, made the startling discovery that tubercular con-

158 G. C. KAROP OX A SPECIMEN OF BACILLUS TUBERCULOSUS

sumption is characterised by a special organism or bacillus, a speci-
men of which I have the honour of submitting to your notice this
evening.

The first thing that may strike the observer who has any ac-
quaintance with these low forms, is, how can it be possible to differ-
entiate as special organisms, what for the most part are but spots
or rods under even the highest powers ? and after reading Tyndall's
" Floating matter in the air," and knowing how universally present
such organisms are in the lower strata of the atmosphere, one is
apt to be rather sceptical in such a case as the present, and to in-
cline to the opinion that although bodies are undoubtedly present,
they are mere products of decomposition, or other accidental
phenomena.

This, however, is met by the curious fact that certain forms are
selective of certain anilin dyes, and are capable of being stained
only by such colours, and it is entirely a matter of experiment to
ascertain the affinities any form may possess. As to how far this
may be the case, and on what it depends, whether on the presence or
absence, or density of envelope or what not, can only be determined
by experience ; remembering too when so many experiments are
being made and so many methods employed, contradictions and
mis-statements are sure to be made, and it is only by patient and
repeated observation that any definite opinion can be arrived at.
For instance, in the present case. Dr. Koch's method of showing
the bacillus, was difficult, tedious, and uncertain. It was inrproved
by Dr. Ehrlich, his assistant, but his procedure, too, gave uncertain
results, and was very complicated. It is described in the last
number of the " Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society."

Finally, Dr. Heneage Gibbes, of King's College Hospital, has
invented a process whereby the bacillus, if present, can be shown,
with comparative ease and but little trouble. The method he
employs is given at length in the Lancet, of Aug. 5th, but as
some here may not have seen his description, and would wish to know
it, I subjoin a short resume of the process.

The necessary reagents are as follows : — A solution of magenta
in pure anilin, this is the stain. A solution of chrysoidin in water,
to which a little thvmol is added, and some common nitric acid, one
part to two of water. A small portion of the suspected sputum
is spread very thinly on a cover-glass and allowed to dry perfectly,
it is then passed through a spirit flame once or twice to ensure its

TRErARED BY DR. GIBBEs' METHOD. 159

dryness, and then immersed in a few drops of the magenta stain and
allowed to remain for about 15 to 20 minutes. It is next transferred
to some of the dilute acid which apparently destroys all the colour,
and from this the cover is put into distilled water and well rinsed,
when a faint tinge of colour returns. It is now put into the
chrysoidin solution, which gets rid of any surplus anilin which
may remain and slightly stains the ground of nuclei and shreds of
lung issue which may be present.

After remaining in the chrysoidin for a few minutes, it is trans-
ferred to absolute alcohol to get rid of the water, then left to dry, and
when thoroughly dry, mounted in balsam, and examined with a one-
eighth objective.

If the bacilli be present, and the specimen is successful, they
will be seen as short rods coloured a brilliant magenta. Of course
the process, like all descriptions, sounds somewhat tedious, and the
drying of the film of sputum on the cover is slow, even if, as it
should be, it is spread very thinly and evenly ; but there is no diffi-
culty about it, and if it be found as it is stated by the inventor, to
stain no other bacillus but bacillus tuberculosus, which is a
matter for experiment to determine, you may readily imagine the
immense aid it promises to be in the diagnosis of early cases of
phthisis, unless it proves, alas ! to be but another ignis fatuus which
has too often led astray the investigator of this terrible disease.

{May 21sJ, 1883.)

As it is now some time since the above was written, I have been
permitted by the Editor to supplement it by a few additional re-
marks.

Repeated observation and experiment has as yet only strengthened
the belief in the specific nature of the bacillus. It has, I believe
without exception, been found in every case of true tubercular
phthisis examined, and it is said to have been identified in the urine
of patients suffering from tubercular disease of the kidneys or
bladder.

From a series of observations made by Dr. West {Lancet, April
21, 1883) and others, there appears to be some slight ratio
between the number and arrangement of the bacilli and the severity
of the cases, specimens from early or improving cases showing the
bacilli scattered singly and comparatively few in number. On the

160 G. C. KAROP ON A SPECIMEN OF BACILLUS TUBERCULOSUS.

other hand, where there is great breaking down of the lung and
near the fatal termination of the disease, they are grouped in masses
and in great quantity ; but there are many exceptions to this, and
individual cases vary considerably.

There seems to be no doubt that they increase most rapidly, and
are to be found most readily in the caseous matter lining the walls
of the cavities in the lung, so that the thick, and not the watery,
part of the sputum should be used for preparing specimens.

Again as to the methods of staining the bacillus. In the above
communication Dr. Gibbes' procedure was advocated as the easiest
and simplest, and it is still, with some later improvements, the one
ordinarily used; but Dr. Neron (Lancet, Dec. 23, 1882) and some
others have shown that it does not differ in any essential way from
that of Ehrlich, which preceded it. A solution of methyl blue is
now used instead of chrysoidin for staining the surrounding matters,
as it affords a greater contrast to the magenta red ; no second stain
however is really necessary. Eecently Dr. Gibbes (Lancet, May
5th) has given a " Kapid Method of Demonstrating the Tubercle
Bacillus without the use of Nitric Acid," which it may be as well
to transcribe. " The stain is made as follows : — Take of rosanilin
hydrochloride two grammes, methyl blue one gramme ; rub them
up in a glass mortar. Then dissolve anilin oil 3 c.c. in rectified
spirit 15 c.c. ; add the spirit slowly to the stains until all is dis-
solved, then slowly add distilled water 15 c.c. ; keep in a stoppered
bottle. To use the stain : — The sputum having been dried on the
cover-glass in the usual manner, a few drops of the stain are poured
into a test tube and warmed ; as soon as the steam rises pour into
a watch-glass, and place the cover-glass on the stain. Allow it to
remain for four or five minutes, then wash in methylated spirit until
no more colour comes away ; drain thoroughly and dry, either in
the air or over a spirit lamp. Mount in Canada balsam."

A certain degree of temperature is necessary for successful stain-
ing, and there is no doubt that many of the earlier experiments
failed from being made in too cold a room. All observers now
agree that a temperature of about 100° to 104° F. is almost abso-
lutely necessary as a condition of success. This may be attained by
either warming the stain first or keeping the covers while staining
in a warm chamber.

161

On the Fibro-vascular Bundles in Ferns and their
Value in Determining Generic Affinities.

By J. W. Morris, F.L.S.

Communicated by T. Curties.
{Read October 27th, 1882.)

PLATES IV. and V.

Everyone, it may be assumed, Las, at some time or other, made a
section, however rough, of the stipes or frond stalk of the common
Bracken (Pteris aquilina), and observed the diagram of the Oak
tree which the fibro-vascular bundles with their scalariform ducts,
thus seen in section, are thought to represent.

A wider acquaintance with sections of this character discloses
some highly interesting] affinities, and suggests a law of correspon-
dence and development which, if once accurately laid down, must, it
is thought, be of value in the determination of genera.

It is by no means suggested that genera can be determined by
this evidence alone. The existing characteristics, hitherto ex-
clusively relied upon, are indispensable and primary, but it is
believed that the due consideration of this feature of growth would
tend to correct or remove many existing anomalies which at present
sorely afflict and confuse the student of Fern classification.

No one who has attempted to master the existing arrangements
and apply them practically to the identification of species, or even
genera, is insensible of the anomalies which exist.

The present classification — or classifications rather — however
scientific in their broader features, are little better than capricious
in a multitude of individual instances.

"We should be in despair in our Phanerogamic Botany if one
authority placed the Tulip tree amongst Tulips, and another trans-
ferred the Salisbuvia adiantoides from the Yews to the Adiantums— •
but it is pretty nearly as bad as this in Fern-land.

162 ON THE FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES IN FERNS AND

. A few instances, taken almost at random, will suffice to show
what strange confusion reigns.

There is a common fern known in the nurserymen's catalogues as
Poly podium trichodes, which rejoices in the aliases of Aspidium,
Lastrea, Phegopteris, and ITypolepis — a range of genera represented
in the Kew classification of Mr. J. Smith by the numbers 5, 70,
75, 84 and 85.

Cystopteris fragilis, to take a familiar fern enough, is Polypodium
of Linnasus, Aspidium of Swartz, and even Cyathea of Smith's
English Botany — or 5, 70, 76, 131 of the Kew classification.

So also Nephrolepis is in turn a Polypodium, an Aspidium, and
a Nephrodium.

Struthiropteris is Onoclea ; Onychium is Lomaria, Trichomanes,
and even Pteris.

These are not, be it remembered, the vagaries of catalogues com-
posed with insufficient knowledge, but the aliases of conflicting
authorities in Botanical Science.

These illustrations, as every Fern student knows to his cost, might
be indefinitely extended. There is hardly a genus which is exempt.
There are few of these anomalies which would not have to yield to
the verdict of the supplementary test which is now proposed.

It is the object of this brief paper to indicate the groups into
which ferns seem to fall by the evidence of the diagram of the
section of the stipes.

To simplify the matter I shall speak of the arrangement of the
fibro-vascular bundles as seen in section as the " Hieroglyph."

The examination of many Hieroglyphs establishes two conclu-
sions :

1st. In certain genera — and by far the larger number — the evi-
dence of the Hieroglyph accords with the existing classification.
It is plus and, therefore, surplus.

2nd. In certain genera the evidence of the Hieroglyph, so far
from sustaining the existing classification, invalidates it, and would
transfer many a fern from the genus to which it is now assigned to
another. The evidence in these cases is minus and material.

What is the net value of these conclusions ? Shall we accept
the affirmative evidence as superfluous, and dismiss the negative as
impertinent, simply saying, " So much the worse for the Hiero-
glyph ! " or shall we collect and group all this evidence, plus or
minus, pro or con, and see what assistance it can afford us in at

Their value in determining generic affinities. 163

least revising a classification which is honeycombed with contradic-
tions ?

As a contribution to this revision, and as in, some sort, an argu-
ment for its necessity, the following results of the examination of
many hundreds of species and some scores of genera are now sub-
mitted. I regret that the limits of my opportunity preclude any
claim to completeness in the investigation.

Advantage has been taken of the process of double staining to
make the sections as distinct as possible.

Diversified as are - the Hieroglyphs in the various species, they
are all susceptible of distribution into about four groups.

1. Punctiform. Fibro-vascular bundles in isolated dots.

2. Sigmatic. Fibro-vascular bundles collected in two S-shaped

canals.

3. Sinuous. Fibro-vascular bundles collected in a zigzag intra-

marginal canal.

4. Medullary. Fibro-vascular bundles within a central canal —

occupying the place of a medulla.

Of the first of these, Poly podium may be taken as the type ; of
the second, Athyrium; of the third, Dicksonia ; of the fourth,
Gleichenia.

More exactly, however, 12 groups present themselves.

1. Punctiform. Irregular. Bundles in scattered dots. Poly-

podium vulgare.

2. Punctiform. Symmetrical. Bundles arranged as in the nails

of a horseshoe. Two at the base larger. Drynaria.

3. Sigmatic. Bundles collected within walls of Sclerenchyma

forming two S-shaped figures like those in the sounding-
board of a violin. Athyrium.

4. Sigmatic -arcuate. S-shaped figures anastomising at the

upper ends so forming a single arcuate figure. Microlepia.

N.B. — Though 3 and 4 are often distinct throughout the stipes,
both forms are to be found in many individual plants, notably in the
so-called Poly podium trichodes, which upon this evidence would be
separated from Polypodium.

5. Aureate. Hieroglyph a symmetrical ear-shaped arch with ter-

minal incurved lobes. Osmunda.

164 ON THE FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES IN FERNS AND

6. Sinuous. Hieroglyph somewhat resembling in outline 4 and

5, but ducts distributed within a sinuous canal in a distinct
zigzag catena. Dichsonia.

7. Sinuous-arcuate. Hieroglyph resembling bridge of a violin —

the zigzag preserved, but the arch receiving a marked lateral
depression. Sitolobium.

8. Sinuous-arcuate, interrupted. The zigzag broken up into

separate bundles apparently dispersed, but susceptible of
being resolved into the figure of No. 7. Pteris aquilina.

9. Medullary. Sigmatic-arcuate, as in 4, but contained in central

canal. Trichomanes.

10. Medullary. Sigmatic- cruciform. The contiguous S-shaped

figures within a central canal presenting the Hieroglyph of
a St. Andrew's cross. Scolopendrium.

11. Medullary. Arborescent. Hieroglyph within central canal of

a tree-like form. GUichenia.

12. Medullary. Indefinite. Bundles within central canal without

particular symmetrical arrangement. Platycerium grande.

All these shade into each other through different species by
degrees almost imperceptible. Pteris aquilina, e.g., is an
interesting puzzle. All the exotic Pterises with which I am
acquainted — tremula, argyram, &c, &c, are arcuate or
sinuous-arcuate, and have little resemblance to P. aquilina,
whose place is apparently nearer to the tree ferns. This may,
of course, be urged as " so much the worse for the Hiero-
glyph," but the question arises whether this universal fern, the root
of which the New Zealanders say is in the middle of the world, is
not the ally of the Sitolobiums and Balantiums.

It is interesting to observe that Aspidium, Sagenia, Cyrtomium,
Nei>hrodium, Lastrea, and Polystidium, so nearly approach each
other in the accepted characteristics that Kunze calls them sections
of one genus. Now all these are punctiform, except Nephrodium,
which is sigmatic.

Ferns as widely distinct in general appearance and habit as the
filmy Todea and the proud Osmnnda are united by their fructifica-
tion into one family, and the classification holds good by the test of
the Hieroglyph.

The accompanying figures are from drawings of sections made
about the middle of the stipes.

Journ,Q.MC.

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THEIR VALUE IN DETERMINING GENERIC AFFINITIES. 165

What is their evidence worth ?

I would venture to submit that — 1st. The arrangement of the
fiibro-vascular bundles should be taken into account in the deter-
mination of genera — especially where the accepted characteristics
fail to establish the position.

2nd. The gradation from one arrangement of these bundles to
another, so marked at greater intervals, so slight at successive
stages, asks for recognition in an arrangement of genera correspon-
dent to this development.

The sections illustrative of these observations are in the cabinet
of the Club.

Journ. Q. M. C, Series II., No. 4. o

Ifi6

Notes on Diatomacearum Dillwynii, or The Genera and
Species of Diatomace.t: in " The British Conferyj: '

OF DlLLWYN.

By F. Kitton, Hon. F.R.M.S., Mem. Cor. Soc. Beige de Mic.

(Read November 24, 1882.;
PLATE VI.

The few forms belonging to the class Diatomaceae figured and
described by L. W. Dillwyn in his " British Conferva? " (4to, 1809)
comprise only the filamentous species. Being unacquainted with their
siliceous character and other important differences which distin-
guish the DiatomaceaB from all other algoicl forms, he placed them
among the Confervas (a genus to which the early botanists seem
to have relegated all the " water- weeds ") on account of their
filamentous growth and "jointed" appearance, caused by the
cohesion of the frustules, and which he considered analogous to
those in what we now call Oscillaria?, &c. He, however, recog-
nises Decandolle's genus Diatoma.

Having had the opportunity, through the kindness of Dr. M. C.
Cooke, of examining Dillwyn's own specimens, I am able to refer
them to the genera and species in which these forms are now
placed.

Diatoma, Decandolle. — Plantse pseudo-parasitica oculo nudo vix
conspicuas, filamentis simplicibus articulatis, articulus in adulta
planta transversum sectis.

The species, arranged in the section ArticuJa solutis of my
" Synopsis," constitute a natural family, and may be referred to this
genus.

Conferva striatula. — C. filis simplicibus compressis dilute viridi-
bus dissepimentis alternatim solutis, articulis diametro vix breviori-
bus transversis striatis (E. B., t. 1,928).

On Fuci and Conferva, in the Sea at Cromer (=Hhabdonema
arcuatum, F. K.).

C.jlocculosa. — C. filsementis sub-simplicibus, compressis, minutis,

P. KITTON ON DIATOMACEARUM DILLWYNII. 167

dissepimentis solutis articulis prismaticis alternatum refractis. — PI.
VI., f. 2.

C. flocculosa, Roth., " Catalecta Botanica " i. ; " Fl. Germ." iii.,
part 1, p. 523.

This singular plant was found for the first time in Britain by
my friend Joseph Woods, jun., and myself, growing in a pool on
Hampsteacl Heath, since which time I have observed it in various
other places. Its structure is so extraordinary that, notwithstand-
ing the figures and descriptions in the " Catalecta Botanica" and
my own repeated observations, I can hardly now allow myself to
assign it a place among the perfect productions of Nature. At first
I considered it as C. pectinalis broken to pieces, but a little exami-
nation rendered that idea inadmissible. It certainly has every
appearance of a broken plant, but J. Woods, jun., has observed it
in a state in which the joints cannot be so disposed as to make the
two parts of the line, which one might otherwise imagine continued
originally the whole length of the plant, coincide.

It is a very small species, seldom exceeding a quarter of an inch
in length, and varying in colour from a pale to a greenish-brown.
The filaments are rarely branched. Their form is not easily ascer-
tained, but they always appear to me to be very much compressed,
and the joints only adhering to one another by single points, look
like a string of parallelograms united at the corners. Each joint
has a double line running through the middle of it, and some very
faint transverse bands frequently appear. In some cases, however,
this is entirely wanting, or has escaped the power of my glass.

(This form was first figured and described but without name in
the " Abridgment of the Philosophical Transactions," 1703, both
of which have been reproduced in my article on the " Early History
of the Diatomaceaa." " Science Gossip," vol. xvi., p. 77, 1880.
It is the Tabellaria flocculosa of modern authors. — F. K.)

C. pectinalis. — C. filis simplicibus pellucidis, acuminatis com-
pressis cinereis plerumque accuminatis, dissepimentis saepe solutis ;
articulis brevissimus medio-crystallino-pellucidis = C. pecti7ialis
Miiller, in " Nov. Act. Pet." iii. ; C. broncliialis, Roth., " Cat. Bot."
i., p. 186 ; " Fl. Germ." iii., p. 520.— PI. VI., f. 1.

Miiller, who first found this singular species, and published an
excellent figure of it, observes that it is abundant in the ditches
about Pyrmont.

The filaments are of a dirty green colour, seldom exceeding half

168 F. KITTON ON DIATOMACEARUM DILLWYNII.

an inch in length, and, to the unassisted eye, resemble decayed
vegetable matter. When entire, they gradually taper to a point,
and, as Miiller observes, bear considerable resemblance to the
antennas of a lobster, but I could never observe the appearance of
cylindricity in the figure given in it by that botanist. The disse-
piments are very conspicuous, and at these the filaments frequently
break, the parts remaining connected at only one extremity, which
when it repeatedly takes place, gives the plants so much the
appearance of floccnlosa as to make it somewhat doubtful whether
the species are distinct. The joints are very short, and appear
coloured towards each end by a green fluid, which, soon after the
plant is taken from the water and it approaches decay, collapses,
sometimes forming into small globular masses, and sometimes
disappearing entirely.

(The statement that the filament tapers to a point is, as we
know, incorrect. This apparent tapering to a point was caused
either by a filament being gradually twisted until its edge wns
visible at one of the extremities, or two filaments were partially
superimposed, which would also cause the tapering appearance. Its
apparent resemblance to C. floccnlosa is not easily explained.
Dillwyn's own preparation does not indicate any resemblance to
that species in the attachment of the frustules to each other at the
angles. =Eitnotia ( Himantidium pectinate of authors). — F. K.)

C. tenia? for mis. — C. filis simplicibus, compressis dilute viridibus
dissepimentis ; articulis diametro dimidio brevioribus, obsolete
variegatis demum refractis (" E. Bot.," tab. 1,833 J.
On Conjerva fucoides, Beachy Head. Mr. Borrer.
C. Biddulpldana. — C. filis simplicibus compressis, longitudina-
liter striatis, viridibus, dissepimentis solutis ; articulis quadratis.
transversim fasciales, sub-alternatim refractis (" E. Bot.," tab.
1,762).

On marine algas, Southampton. Miss Biddulph.
This plant, which, as well as C. striatula, C. teniceformis, and
C. obliquata, is here introduced upon the authority of"E.
Botany," appears to be, as Dr. Smith observes, really an extra-
ordinary production, but it seems scarcely possible that all the
figures in that plate should belong to the same plant, or if they do,
does it not lead to a suspicion that the species of this family have
been unnecessarily multiplied by authors ?

C. obliquata. — C. filis ramosis, compressis flexuosis fusco albi-

P. K1TT0N ON DIATOMACEAItUM DILLWYNII. 169

dis ; dissepimentis solutis, articulis quadratis, obliquis, transversim
fasciatis, maculatis, alternatum, refractis (" E. Bot.," tab. 1,889).

On Faci and Conferva* in the sea. Miss Biddulph".

(C. teniceformis according to Harvey, "Manual of British
Algae," 1841, and Greville in " Hooker's English Flora," 1883.
=Diatoma marinum=Grammatopliora marina of recent authors, to
which species C. Biddulpluana must also be referred. Dillwyn's
specimen, which I have examined, leaves no doubt as to the identity
of the two species. F. K.)

C. fasciata. — C. filis simplicibus tenuibus mucosis purpurea-
fuscns, articulis medio-fascia angusta transversum notatis longitu-
dem diametrium cequantibus. — PI. VI., f. 5.

On decayed leaves and sticks, &c, in a ditch at Stoke Newington.
Joseph Woods.

Mr. Woods discovered this species in slippery masses about 1^
inch long, of a purple brown colour, and forming a thick coat over
decayed substances in a ditch at Stoke Newington. The length
and diameter of the joints is equal, and in the middle of each
there is the appearance of a dark narrow transverse band, which,
however, proceeds from the internal organization of the plant, and
therefore appears somewhat shorter than the diameter of the fila-
ment.

(C. fasciata=Melosira varians, F. K.)

C. lineata. — C. filis simplicibus, tenuibus fragilibus fuscis ; dis-
sepimentis contractis ; articulis linea una alterave tenuissima
striatis, diametro sub-triplo longioribus. — PI. VI., f. 4.

Among the leaves of water plants in the river Lea at Waltham-
stow.

In March, 1802, I found a single small specimen of this species
among a jelly-like substance of the Tremella kind, which almost
covers the water-plants in the Lea at Walthamstow. The fila-
ments are simple, and very brittle, and of a brown colour. I have
not since been able to find more than a few imperfect filaments of
this plant. The length of the joints in some filaments is about
thrice, and in others not more than twice, the diameter, and they
are generally marked with one or two transverse lines at certain
distances from each other.

(Dillwyn's specimen is Melosira subjiexiks of the " Synopsis." —
F. K.)

C. nummuloides. — C. filis simplicibus, tenuibus, fragilibus fusco

170 F. KITTOX ON DIATOMAOEARUM D1LLWYNII.

aureis, articulis diametro sub-brevioribus domum in glomerulus

sub-ovatis moniliformes approximates mutatis. — PI. VI., f. 3.

Among the leaves of water-weeds in the river Lea at Waltham-
stow.

In March, 1602, 1 found a few detached filaments of the present
plant mixed with those of C. lineata among the Tremella-like
slime with which, as I have before mentioned, many of the plants
in the river Lea are covered.

I have not discovered any filaments that appear to be at all
perfect, but they seem to be sufficiently so to prove that the plant
differs materially from every other British species.

The filaments are cylindrical, of a brittle nature, and reddish,
yellowish, or yellowish-brown colour. The internal vesicles which
constitute the joints appear to be at first cylindrical, but at length
collapse into an oral, form, so as to (/ire to the filaments, when
highly magnified, some resemblance to a series of guineas (italics
mine. — F. K.)

The length of their joints are generally somewhat less than
their diameter.

(The slide from Dillwyn's collection marked C. nummuloides is
without locality or date, but the name is in the author's hand-
writing. The species is attached to a marine alga, upon which
were also growing Melosira Borreri, Grammatophora marina, and
Synedra ajfinis. The form figured and described in the " British
Conferva?" could not have been from the river Lea at Waltham-
stow, as all the above-named forms are marine. — F. K.J

G. ochracea. — C. fills ramosissimus tenuissimus perfragilibus,
densissime compactis, gelatinam ochraceam, tarn en in floccos sece-
dentum constituentibus.

In pools and ditches ; common.

(This form was placed by Hassall " Freshwater Alga?," vol.i, p.
400, as Melosira ochracea and with Diatoms as synonymous with
Gallionella ferruginea. A careful examination of Dillwyn's speci-
men does not confirm this, and I am unable to distinguish anything
like a Diatom frustule. A fragment treated with nitric acid was
destroyed by its action. Dr. Kutzing (" Bacillarien," p. 5G)
says : — lt Ganz ausgeschlossen muss werden Gallionella ferruginea
Ehr. welche kein Diatomee sondern einc Confcrvcaest." Dr. Wer-
neck, in 1841, gave figures of G. ochracea and G. ferruginea, and
which represent two distinct species. His figure of a filament of

F. KITTON ON DIATOMACEARUM DILLWYNII. 171

the latter magnified 3,000 diameters (?) is very much like Dillwyn's
figures of C. nummuloides. — F. K.)

G.fcetida. — C. filamentis ramosis, flaccidis, vergatis coadunatis,
apicibus liberis, ramis consertis sub-dichotomis dissepimentis
obsoletis articulis longinsculis granula elliptica solitaris includien-
tibus.

Ulva ftetida, Vaucher, " Histoires des Confervas " d'eau douce,
p. 244, t. 17, f. 3. Monema Dillwynii, Grev. ; Schizonem a Dill-
wynii, Sin. ; Berkeleyi Dillwynii, Gran. Stagnant pools in the salt
marshes of Cley, Norfolk, Mr. Hooker ; Bantry Bay, the Mumbles
Lighthouse, Glamorganshire.

In the early part of last June (1808) I discovered this curious
production of nature growing under the Mumbles Lighthouse in
a pool left by the tide near low water mark, where, had not the
tide receded unusually low, it could not have been exposed to view.
This I suppose to be a natural situation, but I have since learnt
that Mr. Hooker had gathered it two months before in the salt
marshes above mentioned, and had ascertained it to be the plant
described and figured by Vaucher ... I have not ventured on
introducing it as a vegetable without considerable hesitation on
account of its strong peculiar oily smell, resembling that of some
zoophytes, but the eye, even when assisted with the highest powers
of a microscope, cannot discover any appearance at all sufficient to
distinguish it from the tribe with which it is now arranged.

C. fcctida grows in thick bushy tufts near two inches in length.
. . . The filaments are very flaccid, and peculiarly slender in pro-
portion to their length. They are twice or three times branched
in an irregularly dichotomous manner. . . The length of the
joint is nearly double the diameter. Each joint contains an egg-
shaped mass resembling C. jngalis (==Zygnema deciminum, Agh.),
w r hich, from analogy, I suppose are formed by a collapsion of their
joints or internal granules, and are somehow connected with fruc-
tification, as supposed by Vaucher, but, like him, I have had no
opportunity of investigating the matter.

(This description well illustrates the very imperfect state of the
microscope at the time Dillwyn wrote the above description. The
so-called joints he, of course, did not see, and simply assumed their
presence because he had detected them in the other Conferva:. I
append Vaucher's description of this form, which agrees very fairly
with that of Dillwyn. — F. K.)

172 F. KITTON ON DIATOMACEARUM DILLWYNII.

Ulve fetide. — Filamens cylindriques, solides, gelatineux, clout
l'extremite est en barbe de plumes, et qui dans leur yieillesse
n'est plus de subdivisions.

Cette singuliere ulve se recontre dans toutes les eaux fraiches et
courantes des petits ruisseaux. Elle est adherente aux pierres du
fond pendant tout les mois de l'annee, sa couleur est d'un brun
noiratre vers les extremites ; mais les tubes eux-memes, surtout
ceux qui sont jeunes, out un coup-d'oeil verdatre. Cette ulve est
probablement celle que Villars a rencontree dans les cuvesde Sassen-
age a laquelle il donne des racines (Voyez Tab. 56ieme de son
ouvrage) et qu'il designe sous le nom de Conferve fetide. Elle
parait entierment forniee de tubes transparens et remplis de grains
moins reguliers que ceux des especes precedences (Ulve niinime).
Ces grains s'allongent et semblent redonner l'ulve, mais jen'ai pas
assez suivi leur developpment pour affirmer quelque cliose a cet
egard. L'odeur qu'elle repand est tres forte, et ressemble aux odeur
animales et sur-tout a celle corps que commencent a entrer en
putrefaction. Quoiqu'elle ne soit pas decrite par Linne ni par la
plupart des autres botanistes, je ne doute pas qu'elle ne se rencontre
par tout ; son port la rapproche des conferves, mais son organisa-
tion Ten eloigne. — u Histoire des Confervees d'Eau Douce," par
Jean-Pierre Vaucher. An xi. (p. 244.)

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI.

Fig. 1. — Conferva pectinalis] The shading represents the endochrome

coloured green in the original figures.

Fig. 2.—

i>

fiocculosa )

Fig. 3 —

?>

nummuloides.

Fig. 4 —

>5

lincata.

Fig. 5.—

»>

fasciata.

These fignres are accurate copies of Dilhvyn's illustrations, which repre-
sent the forms as seen under the sixth power of his microscope. This was
apparently equal to about 200 diameters.

Journ,Q.M.C

Ser.irVoL.l.Pl.VI

Fxg.l

; 1 ) \

\\

r~\

.

■

m

Fiq. 2

Kj.3

i xxrx

ujnxmmxn

Fig . 4 .

•/'

Fig. 5.

DUET: rmTnTrTTTTTT

EK.del.AH.Searle.lith.

Hanhartimp.

173

On the Statoblasts of the Freshwater Sponges.

By B. W. Priest.

(Read November 24th, 1882.)

PLATE VII.

Having lately been engaged in examining the Statoblasts of the
species of Freslnvater Sponges at present known, and being struck
with their marvellous structure and beauty, I thought a few words
about them might interest some of the members of the Quekett
Club, although I know the two British species have been ably
treated by Mr. Waller.

I shall not enter into the general structure of the different species
now known, but confine myself to the Statoblasts of the typical
specimens' of each genus, noting any particular deviation of form
that may occur as we proceed, and mentioning any j:>eculiarity in
the form of those Sponges in which the Statoblasts are unknown.

The Freshwater Sponges were first made known as far back as
1696, and in 1745 Linnseus described two species under the re-
spective names of Spongia Jiuviatilis and Spongia lacustris, mention-
ing at the same time the presence of the small seed-like bodies
generally associated with them.

These organisms have been named by different writers on the
subject at various times, gemmules, ovules, ovisacs, spherules, cap-
sules, and lastly statoblasts or winter eggs, from their close
resemblance to the statoblasts of the Freshwater Bryozoa, not only
in outward ajupearance but also in their being, according to Mr.
Carter, similar in general internal structure, the difference being only
in size and form, in having spicules instead of tentacular appen-
dages on their surface, and in the mode of discharging their contents
when matured.

Now, as there have never been any forms found in the Marine
Sponges at all resembling the Statoblasts found in the Freshwater
Sponges, a sharp line of demarcation between the two is here indi-
cated by that circumstance alone.

174 B. W. PRIEST ON THE STATOBLASTS OF

The reason assigned for the Statoblasts occurring only in the
Freshwater and not in the Marine Sponges is, that the former are
often left high and dry for weeks, perhaps for months together,
whilst the sea is constantly returning to cover the latter, they
therefore do not require the protection to the ova from the influence
of the atmosphere and other causes that the Freshwater Sponges
would do.

The Statoblasts may be found most abundantly at the base of the
sponge towards the autumn or winter, but in the warm summer
days they are plentifully diffused throughout the entire body of the
sponge, excepting, perhaps, quite the new growth.

The late Dr. Bowerbank placed the Spongilla under the genus
Isodictya, on account of the skeleton structure agreeing so perfectly
in the form of the spicules composing it, though distinguished from
that genus by the peculiarities of the reproductive organs, viz., the
Statoblasts, the Spongilla reproducing its kind after the manner of
the Marine Sponges, that is to say, by ova proper, and division of
the sarcode.

The two British species were the only ones known as Fresh-
water Sponges, until, in 1848 and 1849, Mr. Carter published his
interesting "Memoirs on the Sponges found in the Bombay Tanks,"
which memoir will be found in the " Annals of Natural History" of
those dates. Since then new forms and varieties have been met
with in Europe, Asia, and America, but strange to say, none have as
yet been brought from Africa, although no doubt they exist there.

Describing the Statoblast generally, it is about the size of a large
pin's head, varying in this respect not only with the species, but in
the individual, and can be seen with the unassisted eve.

In form it is more or less globular or oval, having a foramen or
hilum, either lateral or terminal on the surface, generally at the
bottom of an infundibular depression which leads to the interior.

If we make a vertical section with a sharp, thin knife, through the
aperture of one of these bodies when dry, we shall observe that it
consists of an internal globular cavity, rilled more or less with a
soft waxy substance, of a yellowish colour, which substance, when
swollen out in water, will be found to be composed of a great
number of thin transparent sacs, somewhat spherical, filled respec-
tively with minute germinal matter, consisting of transparent germs
of different sizes, the whole enclosed by a delicate investing mem-
brane, slightly protruding at the aperture, and presenting a reti-

THE FRESHWATER Sl'ONGES. 175

ciliated appearance like that of vegetable cell structure. Next
comes a comparatively thick, chitinous membrane, of an amber
colour, which, when viewed in the whole Statoblast, has a deeper
colour than when separated.

Then comes another coating or crust which, in two instances, is
composed of cell structure, hexagonal in section, but in the rest of
a white granular or micro-cellular substance, which can only be seen
by a very high power object-glass. It appears to afford a floating
property, like cork, to the Statoblast, and varies much in thickness
according to the species. Its composition is still, I believe, a dis-
puted point, Meyen thinking it was lime, having a cellular forma-
tion, but in no case has it been known to effervesce when brought
into contact with hot or cold acids.

This crust is charged or accompanied by spicules of different
forms, variously arranged according to the species, and on which
the classification of the Freshwater Sponges is now founded.

Although the Statoblasts have been known so many years, John-
ston, in his description of the British species, does not mention the
presence of spicules except in a foot-note, stating that Meyen, in
1839, discovered bi-rotulate spicules, and others with minute spines
on their surface, evidently believing, at that time, that the two be-
longed to the one species of sponge ; perhaps a natural conclusion
to have come to then, as the two were, and are often, found growing
together in the same locality, and the microscopical appliances for
seeing them were not then anything like so perfect as they are now.

In some species, as in Tubella reticulata, the Statoblast is en-
closed in a distinct layer of spicules, which partake more of the
character of the skeleton spicules of the Sponge, forming a cap-
sular covering, in which it was probably developed.

We will now pass on to the classification of the Freshwater
Sponges, as founded by Mr. Carter, on the form and structure of
the Statoblasts, as far as present known, omitting for brevity the
general structure of the Sponge, as I mentioned at the commence-
ment of this paper.

The first genus comprises the Spongilla, containing ten species,
whose Statoblasts are globular, crust thick, thin, and in some cases
absent altogether, accompanied by minute acerate spicules, smoothed
or spined according to species.

In Spongilla Carteri the spicules are smoothly acerate, and the
crust is composed of pyramidal columns of dodecahedral or poly-

176 B. W. PRIEST ON THE STATOBLASTS OF

hedral cells, hexagonal as seen in section or when focussing for the
surface, regularly arranged one above another in juxtaposition, per-
pendicularly to the outside of the chitinous coat.

This species has only been found as yet in India, Mauritius, and
lately by Dr. Margo'of Budapest, in Europe, in the Lake of Balaton.
My own specimen, for which I am indebted to Dr. Matthews, comes
from Jheels, opposite Benares.

The only British species of this genus is Spongilla lacustris, the
Statoblasts of which have the spicules more or less curved, minute,
stout and sharp-pointed. They are covered with stout recurved
spines, the outer crust being composed of micro-cellular structure.

This species is found growing somewhat plentifully up the Thames,
at Henley, Goring, and Marlow, and is also met with in Europe
generally, North America, and Asia, but the finest specimens that
I have seen have come from the Upper Thames.

The remaining eight species of this genus are S. alba, S. pau-
perenta, S. cinerea, S. cerebellata, S. nauicella, S. multiforis, (so
named on account of having several openings to the Statoblast,
this species is also apparently devoid of a crust), S. Lordii
and S. nitens. This last-named species has the pyramidal columns
in the outer crust, like S. Carted, all other species having the
granular or micro-cellular structure.

The next genus is Meyenia, after Meyen, who first discovered the
presence of bi-rotulate spicules characteristic of this genus, and it
comprises eight species. The Statoblasts are globular or oval, the
micro-cellular structure of the crust being charged with bi-rotulate
spicules, that is spicules which consist of a straight shaft terminated
at each end by a disk, even or denticulated at the margin, arranged
perpendicularly around the chitinous coat, so that one disk is
applied to the latter, while the other forms part of the surface of the
Statoblast.

In Meyenia fiuviatilis (Spongilla fiiiviatilis of Bowerbank) the
species most generally known, and in which many varieties occur,
as instanced in Mr. Waller's paper on that subject,* the umbonate
disks are deeply and irregularly denticulated, and the shafts in
some cases more or less spiniferous. The Bombay species, S.
Meyeni, and the River Exe species, S. Parfittii, have both kinds
of spicules, viz., smooth and spined, proving that they are only
varieties of M. fiuviatilis.

* '< Q. M. J.," Vol. v, p. 53.

THE FRESHWATER SPONGES. 177

Iii Meyenia phtmosa (perhaps the most beautiful of any of the
freshwater Sponges as a microscopical object), the Statoblasts are
oval-, with the aperture lateral, the umbonate disk is of equal size
and the margin is irregularly denticulated, with the processes more
or less turned inwards. The shaft is long, straight, and sparsely
spiniferous, the spines being large, conical, and perpendicular on
their surface. I may mention here, that it is the only species of
freshwater Sponge that has the flesh spicule stelliform, consisting
of a number of arms of various lengths radiating from a smooth,
globular body, the arms spined throughout. This species comes from
Bombay.

The remaining six species are, M. erinaceus, AI. Leidii, M. gre-
garia, M. Capeivelli, M. Baileyi, and M, anonyma.

We now come to the genus Tubella, signifying a little straight
trumpet, so named on account of the spicules, charging the crust of
the Statoblast, having the shaft passing by a trumpet-like expansion
into a disk at one end, this disk being larger than the other.

The Statoblast of this genus is either globular or elliptical, the
aperture lateral or terminal. It comprises four species, Tubella
reticulata, T. paalata, T. spinata, and T. recurvata. The typical
species, T. reticulata, has the Statoblast elliptical, ovoid, aperture
terminal, crust composed of micro-cellular substance, charged with
inecjiii-birotulate spicules, consisting of a straight shaft passing by a
trumpet-like expansion into the larger disk, with two or more spines
about the centre, and furnished with a ring-like inflation towards
the disk; which disk is circular, smooth, with an even margin, some-
what recurved, the opposite end of the spicule consisting of a cir-
cular umbonate head, regularly denticulated on the margin with six
or eight conical processes. The spicules are arranged perpen-
dicularly, so that the small end forms part of the surface of the
Statoblast, whilst the disk rests on the chitinous coat. It is in
this genus that the Statoblasts seem to have been developed in a
capsular covering composed of spicules similar to those forming the
skeleton of the sponge, which are bent, subfusiform, and rounded
at the ends, only half the size and more thickly spined. This
species comes from the River Amazon.

The remaining genus of which we know anything of the Stato-
blast, is named Parmula, a little round shield, on account of the
form of some of the spicules. There are two species, P. Batesii
and P, Brownii.

178 B. W. PRIEST ON THE STATOBLASTS OF

Taking Parmula Batesii as the typical species, we shall see that
the Statoblast, besides being a beautiful object when magnified, is
very curious in the arrangement of its spicules.

It is large, globular, and more or less tuberculated. Crust very
thick, composed of micro-cellular structure, which grows out through
the interstices of the reticulated arrangement of the skeleton spicules,
and forms somewhat of a capsular covering to the Statoblast, as
in Titbella, giving it the tuberculated appearance just mentioned.
It is charged with, and surrounded by minute, thin, curved, fusi-
form, gradually sharp -pointed, spinous acerate, spicules irregularly
dispersed through the substance, limited, both inside and outside, by
a layer of parmuliform spicules, the former in contact with the
chitinous coat, and the latter on the free surface of the crust, giv-
ing it a light-brown colour.

The parmuliform spicule is circular, flat, infundibuliform, ter-
minating in a point, like a little round shield turned up at the
margin, which is even. The spicules are arranged both internally
and externally in the Statoblast in juxtaposition, more or less
overlapping each other with the funnel-shaped process outwards in
both instances, so that the surface is covered with little points.

The Sponges comprising Tubella and Parmula possess an ex-
tremely rigid reticulated structure, as also the next and last genus,
Uruguaya, so named from having been found in the rapids of the
river Uruguay. The only species is U. corallioides of which the
Statoblast has not yet been discovered;

Dr. Dybowski has, I believe, found Sponges in Lake Baikal, in
Central Asia, including a new genus, Lubomirslda, comprising
four species with their varieties, but the Statoblasts were absent in
all of them.

Without taking these into consideration, we have thus five genera
of Freshwater Sponges, including 24 species, in only one of which
the Statoblast is unknown. Two only of these have been found in
the British Isles, varying in structure according to locality, &c. It
would not surprise me if other species should be found some day,
particularly as they seem to have existed in former years in larger
numbers of species, as proved by the presence of the amphidiscs
and spicules found in freshwater deposits, many of which are differ-
ent in form from those at present known.

Referring to what I stated at the commencement of this paper,
that Statoblasts do not occur in any known Marine Sponges, I have
been asked occasionally, " What then do you call the bodies found

THE FRESHWATER SPONGES. 170

in Geodia and Pachymatisma, and termed by the late Dr. Bower-
bank Ovaria ? " My answer is that they are certainly not Ovaria.

Dr. Bowerbank was evidently misled by the depressions which
are found to exist in these bodies. If we break up any of them,
as I have often done, from their earliest form of development, we
shall find that it is merely a depression and not an aperture leading
to an internal cavity, as no such cavity exists, and that the " glo-
bular crystalloids," as they are now termed, are consolidated
aggregations of spicules radiating from the centre to the circum-
ference, and forming one solid mass, being no more ovarian than
the stellate forms of spicules found in Tethya, or the silicious or
calcareous bodies found packed in the cells of some of the Tuni-
cated Ascidians. Dr. Bowerbank's statement of their being Ovaria
moreover is not borne out by the figures intended to illustrate
what he says.

For further particulars, a paper by Mr. Carter in the " Annals
of Natural History," for July, 1869, containing remarks on the
same subject, may be consulted.

Since writing this, Mr. Carter has kindly sent me a copy of
his paper in the " Annals of Natural History " for the present
month, describing a new species from Bombay — Spongilla bom-
bay emis ; and also calling attention to one shortly to be published
and described by Mr. Potts of Philadelphia, found at Chester
Creek — Spongilla segregata, the Statoblasts of which are developed
in a capsule, four together; the capsule being composed of hexa-
gonal cells, such as are found in S. Carteri and S. nitens ; the
whole reminding one of the appearance of the tetrahedral form of
the sporangium in certain plants.

Perhaps I ought not to leave the subject without making some
statement as to the way the young Sponge is produced from the
Statoblast, but as I unfortunately have not seen the process myself
I may be allowed to quote Mr. Carter, our present great authority
on the subject, as briefly as I can : —

" In due season the cellular contents are discharged through the
foramen into the water, and undergo a remarkable development
appearing as a white flocculent substance, having a flat, trans-
parent, irregular margin, containing numerous vesicles, whilst in
its central portion are ova-bearing or reproductive cells. At the
same time generally two kinds of spicula3 appear, which are formed
in the interior of special nucleated cells. They at first present
themselves as delicate lines, but rapidly grow by external additions

180 B. W. PRIEST ON THE STATOBLASTS OF

until they attain full dimensions. These additions are generally
made more quickly at one point than another, rather than through-
out their entire length, so that in their half-developed condition
they present one or more bead-like inflations, which disappear when
the growth is complete.

11 When the growth of the sponge-mass has made some progress,
the formation of a distinct investing membrane out of what was
the flat transparent border, becomes obvious. This membrane is
gradually detached from the central ova-bearing cells, either by the
shrinking of the latter, or by the protrusion of bundles of spicules
which force it outwards, leaving here and there open spaces
between the membrane and the central cell mass.

" And so it proceeds until after the development of other
spicules and canals formed for the passage of the water, the
Sponge is perfected and continues to grow by adding to its general
structure, until it arrives at its full size, which of course varies
according to the locality and species.

" The process best suited for examining the structure of the
Statoblasts in the dry state — which is the most easy method, many
difficulties attending the examination fresh, when attainable
— is to place four or five on a glass slip with a drop of strong
nitric acid. Boil this to dryness over a very low spirit lamp.
Do this three times. Then place the slip on the incline and pass
water over it with a camel's-hair pencil until all the remains of the
acid is washed out. Next with a sharp, thin knife like a lancet,
divide, in half or in quarters, one or two more Statoblasts, and
adjust them round the remains of the foregoing (or on a separate
slip if you prefer it.) Add a drop or two of benzole or turpentine
to keep them in place, and when dry, which will be in a few
minutes, add a drop of Canada balsam, cover with thin glass,
previously just warming the cover, put the slide in a warm place
for some hours to harden, and it will then be ready for examina-
tion."

I trust that what I have called attention to this evening may
prove as much a source of interest to those members who should
take up the subject as it has been to myself.*

* After reading the above paper, Mr. Frank Crisp and Mr. Alphens
Smith kindly called my attention to notices in the " Transactions of the
Linnean Society," and in "Nature," of two new Freshwater Sponges
discovered in Australia, and described by Mr. W. A. Haswell, viz., Spon-
yilla sceptroides and Spoyigilla botryoides.

; :.C.

/

^

L*— »

'I

■

1

2.

•'

■ . I

.

.

.

6

JGWaller&BiW Priest dd.

THE FRESHWATER SPONGES. 181

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII.

(1) Diagi*amrnatic section of the Statoblast of S pong ilia Ca?'teri, through
the aperture d, showing a, inner investing membrane ; b, chitinous coat ;
c, crust, composed in this species of hexagonal cells as fig. e.

(2) a, Statoblast of Spongilla Carteri ; b, curved, smooth, acerate spicule
of same ; c, curved spinous, acerate spicule of S. Lacustris.

(3) a, Statoblast of Meyenia fluviatilis, showing position of spicules; b,
birotulate spicule of same ; c, end view of disk of spicule.

(4) a, Statoblast of Meyenia plumosa, showing position of spicules ; b,
birotulate spicule of same ; c, stellate form of spicule of membrane.

(5) a, Statoblast of Tubella reticulata, showing position of spicules ; b,
inaequi-birotulate, or trumpet-like spicule, of same ; c, spinous skeleton
spicule, forming capsular layer to the statoblast.

(6) a, Statoblast of Parmula Batesii, showing position of spicules ; b,
parmuliform spicule ; c, spinous acerate spicule.

(7) Diagrams showing development of spicules.

Journ. Q. M. C, Series II., No. 4.

182

Remarks on a Paper " On Fluid Cavities in Meteorites '
read by h. hensoldt before the quekett micro-
SCOPICAL Club on August 26, 1881.

By A. de Souza Guimaraens, F.R.M.S.

{Communicated November 2±th, 1882.)

I am not aware that any terrestrial rocks have yet been dis-
covered showing structure which might be mistaken for that of
a meteorite, the iron masses in the Ovifak Basalts being, perhaps,
the only exception on record.

I have placed under one of the microscopes on the table a sec-
tion of the specimen described in the above paper.

I also exhibit — for comparison — a section of ferruginous
quartzite from near Upata, South America, and two sections of
quartz (one mounted by Mr. Hensoldt) containing fluid cavities
with bubbles which have spontaneous motion.

Upon comparing the so-called " Braunfel's Meteorite " with the
quartzite. from Upata, the resemblance existing between the two
specimens is very striking. One observes great similarity both
in the clear grains and the opaque mineral. Under polarised
light the two sections do not show any important difference in
structure.

The proportion of the opaque mineral compared with the clear
grains is greater in the Braunfels specimen than in the quartzite,
but this difference, being one of proportion only, is really un-
essential.

The similarity between the fluid cavities with moving bubbles is
more distinctly seen when comparing the so-called " Braunfels
meteorite " with either of the quartz sections I exhibit. The fluid
cavities and moving bubbles enclosed in the quartzite show the
family likeness, but they are less numerous, smaller, and require
at least x 500 for their satisfactory exhibition.

As to the metallic lustre, of which Mr. Hensoldt seems to make
a special feature, it will be found that the jwlished section of the

" ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES." 183

Upata quartzite I have placed on the table presents an identical
appearance to that possessed by the so-called meteorite. ■

After reading Mr. Hensoldt's paper, I was for months under
the impression — misled by various circumstances — that some
meteorites contained fluid cavities with moving bubbles. But I
soon became conscious of my error upon acquiring accurate in-
formation ; hence this communication.

I would also call attention to the fact that Mr. Hensoldt
omitted to state in his paper, that the authorities of the British
Museum, after examining, not only a section but also a portion of
the specimen itself, informed him in December, 1880 — eight
months. before the paper was read — " that the so-called ' Braunfels
meteorite ' had none of the characteristics of a meteorite, but had
those of a quartzite ; that no one was likely to accept it as a
meteorite ; that the enclosed mineral was quartz ; that the en-
closed fluid was probably water ; and that the enclosing substance
was very probably oxide of iron."

Dr. Sorby writes — " I have examined in a superficial manner
one of the specimens . . . and my strong belief is that the
clear grains in which they (the fluid cavities) occur are quartz,
and that the specimen is no meteorite."

As the authorities above quoted are unanimously of opinion that
the transparent mineral is quartz, it only remains for Mr. Hensoldt
to prove his assertion — " The transparent material I have found to
be a silicate of the Phenacite group, and closely resembling phenacite
in all its characteristics." * If he can prove this he has added, not
only a new mineral, but a new element (glucinum) to meteorites.

Professor Judd states — " The minerals which occur in
meteorites are in every case such as are found in the more basic
volcanic rocks — quartz, and the acid felspars, the other minerals
which occur in acid rocks, being entirely absent in the < extra-
terrestrial rocks.' "f

Sections of the so-called Braunfels meteorite were sent to Dr. A.
Brezina, of the Imperial Museum, Vienna, but were returned by
him with a letter, in which he says "the substance is probably,
some furnace product, and has no resemblance to any meteorite
known."

* " Journal of the Q. M. C," Vol. I, Series ii, No. 1, March 1882,
page 13.
f " Volcanoes," 2nd edition, page 317.

184 " ON FLUID CAVITIES IN METEORITES."

It is not improbable that meteorites may yet be found contain-
ing minerals differing from those already described, but when
such discoveries are made they must be substantiated by the
strongest evidence, including chemical analysis.

Until then, and in the present state of our knowledge, any
specimen containing quartz or phenacite must be regarded as presum-
ably of terrestrial origin.

Taking all the above facts into consideration, one is justified in
believing that Mr. Hensoldt's theory and conclusions are erroneous.

185

Further Notes on Fluid Cavities in Meteorites.

By Heinrich Hensoldt.

(Communicated November 24, 1882.)

Whatever information I am personally enabled to give respecting
the meteorite of Braunfels is contained in the paper on Fluid
Cavities, which I read last year before the Club ; and I am afraid
I can add but little of value or importance in a possible discussion
with experts. Nor am I personally in a position to maintain such
a discussion, for I am neither deeply learned in mineralogy nor an
authority on meteorites. I can merely render an account of facts
as they have been brought before me bearing on this question, and
of experiments which may either support or weaken the conclusions
I have drawn from them (viz., the facts). The conclusions may
be erroneous, but the facts remain; and if the former should be
the case I need scarcely apologise to the Club for communicating
them in a paper, for the refuted arguments would then acquire a
negative value by facilitating the true explanation of the facts.

Since the publication of my paper in the Journal of the Club it
has repeatedly come to my knowledge, more as a rumour than in
the shape of any distinct information, that such and such an
authority had expressed his doubts as to the meteoric character of
the specimen described by me as the meteorite of Braunfels. In only
two instances am I directly acquainted with the opinions of scientists
of repute respecting the subject, which opinions I will mention
before proceeding with other observations. Mr. Fletcher, of the
British Museum, to whom I had submitted a fragment of the
material for examination, stated that in his opinion it was not
meteoric, and that the substance which I had considered to be
metallic iron was in reality Hematite. The Custodian of the
Mineralogical Cabinet of Vienna wrote to my father that there
could be no doubt as to the presence of metallic iron in the speci-
men, but that in his belief the latter was the produce of a melting
furnace of iron-ore, a kind of ferruginous slag, such as might be
met with in the neighbourhood of an iron foundry, or be found in

186 H. HENS0LDT ON CAVITIES IN METEORITES.

the fields years even after every trace of the foundry had disap-
peared. Then, indirectly, through the medium of a F.R.M.S.
who communicated with Dr. Sorby on the subject, I have been in-
formed that in the opinion of the latter gentleman the so-called
meteorite was a species of ferruginous quartz, and that not a
single one of the many supposed meteorites which had from time
to time been sent to him for inspection, had turned out to be a
real meteorite. I have also been told by observers whose opinions
are at least worth quoting, that the specimen in question could not
possibly be a meteorite, because, apart from the fluid cavities, it
presented features which had never before been observed in
meteorites, that it was not " like " a meteorite, and that the trans-
parent mineral which I had declared to be Phenacite, or some-
thing closely allied to it, was really quartz. A few others have
even ventured to express it as their opinion that the mere presence
of the fluid cavities precluded the possibility of the meteoric origin
of the material.

How far these various adverse criticisms are correct, it does
not behove me to determine; they must rest on their own merits,
and on whatever superior convictions they may carry with them.
To gainsay such men as Dr. Sorby and Mr. Fletcher would be
looked upon as highly presumptuous on my part, and would cer-
tainly not advance my cause. I will therefore content myself in
the first, place by analysing the more important of the statements
contained in my paper, by tracing the conclusions which I arrived
at from the facts as they presented themselves to me, and finally
I by comparing the opinions of some of the authorities which I
have mentioned with mine, and with, each other.

To begin with, there are the remarkable circumstances under
which the meteoric mass (I must continue to call it so, for in my
own mind I am quite satisfied of its meteoric origin) was obtained.
Were I in a position to prove beyond the shadow of a doubt the
absolute accuracy of the account given in my paper of the discovery
of the mass, this would at once and for ever dispose of every argu-
ment advanced against its meteoric character. This the most
eminent authority on meteorites would doubtless admit. Unfor-
tunately, I am not in such a position, for neither my father nor
myself have personally witnessed the occurrence described in the
beginning of my paper. And I am afraid that, even if either or
both of us had been present, the testimony of an additional pair of

H. HENSOLDT ON CAVITIES IN METEORITES. 187

eyes and ears would not Lave carried much weight against hostile
scientific opinion at large. The meteoric mass was brought to my
father by a young student of Braunfels, a native of that place,
named Otto Muller, who stated that he had obtained it from a
shepherd of St. Georgen, a small village, or rather suburb of
Braunfels, and who had obtained it under precisely the conditions
already described. This shepherd, an old man named Schiitz,
whom both my father and myself afterwards repeatedly interrogated,
corroborated the statement of the student Muller, and at our re-
quest accompanied us to the scene of the occurrence, a field on
the slope of a hill, about a mile and a half from the town, where
the traces of some recent digging were pointed out to us, which we
carefully examined, without however, deriving much information
from that circumstance, for, apart from the distortion apparently
caused by the digging instrument, the rain had softened and
altered the appearance of the original depression. I may here re-
mark that my father, before removing to the neighbouring town of
Wetzlar, had resided in Braunfels for nearly twelve years, where,
owing to his known taste for natural history, the farmers and
peasants were in the habit of bringing to him whatever in the way
of curiosities they happened to meet with in field or wood, be it
plants, insects, or strange-looking stones. We have no reason to
doubt the words of the student or shepherd ; the material was
brought by the former as a meteorite, and no reward, pecuniary or
otherwise, was claimed or expected.

Starting now from what appeared, and still appears to us, so
convincing an evidence of the meteoric origin of the specimen, every
further examination of the latter itself, in our eyes at least, con-
firmed it. Had the substance been undistinguishable from a piece
of Basalt or Granite, we should still have been satisfied of its
meteoric character, so convinced are we of the accuracy of our in-
formation respecting the circumstances of its discovery. But here
was an object which, in addition to these circumstances, possessed
all the characteristic features of a meteorite, and which was
unlike any mineral or rock specimen we had ever seen. It was
blackish, heavy, and composed in great part of what surprisingly
resembles metallic iron. It was furthermore possessed of that test-
feature of true meteorites — a hard crust — with numerous sand
grains imbedded, pointing to the conclusion that it must have been
in a state of fusion. If all these qualities are deceptive, I confess

188 II. HENSOLDT ON CAVITIES IN METEORITES.

myself unable to venture a single observation on meteorites, and
■would warn everybody to leave that delicate subject entirely to ex-
perts. My experience in meteorites before I knew of the speci-
men from Braunfels lias at least been a practical one. Dr. 0.
Buchner of Giessen, who is the author of two works on meteorites,
often sent small fragments from authenticated meteorites to my
father for the purpose of obtaining sections from them. These
mostly passed through my hands, and I was also, while studying at
Giessen for one and a half years, a pupil of Dr. Buchner. As re-
gards the opaque component of the specimen from Braunfels,
which, as I have described in my paper, is distributed in the shape
of a minute network, its true character is still a puzzle to me.
That it is not puro metallic iron, as seemed at first to be the case,
I have already mentioned in the paper. But I am equally certain
that it is neither Hematite nor any other ordinary ferruginous com-
bination, for I am not aware that any similar known substance is
capable of receiving and retaining such an absolutely metallic
lustre or polish.

The crystalline and transparent component of the meteoric mass
(which contains the fluid cavities) is clearly not quartz, at least not
in my humble opinion. The crystals or granules will melt with
borax before the blowpipe slowly, and form a transparent glass.
They will furthermore dissolve slowly in salt of phosphorus, leaving
a skeleton of silica. With a trifling amount of soda they will melt
into a white bead, while with a larger quantity they become in-
fusible. The crystalline form appears to be Rhombohedral (37° 19')
and lamella? cut at right angle to the principal axis show by
polarised light the ring system and dark cross. These qualities are
certainly not exhibited by quartz. There is only one mineral which
possesses similar or identical peculiarities, and that is that singular
combination of glucine and silica called Phenacite (Silica 54*90,
Glucine 45-10).

I will not add to the length of this statement by rendering a still
more detailed account of the circumstances which gave origin to
the opinions expressed in my paper on fluid cavities, or by intro-
ducing matters not strictly relevant to the subject. Having re-
lated in a condensed form the facts, or what / look upon as the
facts, of the case, and the conclusions rightly or wrongly flowing
therefrom, I will again briefly refer to the various opinions of
adverse critics which have come to my knowledge. To attempt to

H. HENSOLDT ON CAVITIES IN METEORITES. 189

prove that they are in the wrong and myself in the right would be
futile with the scientific public at large, at least in this country,
where general information is not so diffused, that is, where the
knowledge of a plurality of scientific subjects is more rarely met
with in the same individual, and where the solution of problems
not entirely self-evident is habitually referred to known specialists,
whose opinion is thenceforward quoted as "law " by the majority.
While I would invite every observer who may feel an interest in
this subject to think and test for himself, unbiassed by any criticism
not resulting from his own research, I do not wish to detract from
the merit of opinions already expressed by authorities more or less
eminent. But I may point out that at least, those which have
come to my knowledge are not characterised by great unanimity.
They agree, it is true, in their denial of the meteoric origin of the
specimen from Braunfels, but here the comparison ceases, although
I should imagine that if they are unanimous in declaring what it is
7iot, they should be equally unanimous in establishing what it is.
Between the opinions of Mr. Fletcher, of the British Museum, the
custodian of the Mineral ogical Cabinet of Vienna, and Dr. Sorby there
is a marked discrepancy, for one considers the opaque substance in
the specimen to be Hematite, another metallic iron, and the entire
mass the produce of a melting furnace, and the third (if I am
rightly informed) a kind of ferruginous quartz. I am also of
opinion that it is entirely fallacious to establish the possibility of the
occurrence of the one or the other substance in a meteorite by
comparison with what is known of the composition of other
meteorites. If we regard the countless myriads of meteorites
which are known to traverse space, and which most probably pre-
sent a vaster diversity of mineral combination in the aggregate than
exists on this globe ; and if on the other hand we consider the
isolated few which have happened to fall on the earth, it appears in
my eyes an absurdity if, from the accidental composition of the latter,
we were to determine what is possible and what is not possible in
a meteorite.

Respecting the fluid cavities, I may mention that shortly after
the publication of my paper, M. A. de Souza Guimaraens, F.R.M.S.,
who happened to possess a number of meteoric sections, some by
well known mounters, such as Moller, but which he previously had
never thought of carefully examining with high powers, found fluid
cavities with bubbles in continual motion in nearly every one of

190 H. HENSOLDT ON CAVITIES IN METEORITES.

them. He was kind enough to submit them to my inspection, and
I certainly observed the phenomenon in four out of five sections,
one being from a fragment of the well-known meteorite of Pul-
tusk. I do not know in how far the meteoric character of these
sections was established, but besides having been procured from es-
teemed and well-known mounters, they presented the appearance of
genuine meteorites.

In conclusion I will also draw attention to the fact that, when
Dr. Hahn, not two years ago, made known his discovery of organic
remains in material of meteoric origin, he was fiercely attacked,
and most of the critics, especially in this country, derided the very
possibility of such a discovery. Now, after prolonged and careful
investigation, the meteoric character of the substance has been
established, and the truth of the other assertions is all but generally
acknowledged.

191

On Mounting in Glycerine, and on Making Cells of Thin

Glass.

By Dr. H. T. Whittell, M.D., F.R.M.S.

(Bead December 22, 1882.)

The working microscopist frequently meets with objects which
he would gladly preserve, but which, having been prepared only
for immediate observation, and lying under the cover-glass floating
in a drop of water or glycerine, with a quantity of the same fluid on
the slide outside the cover, are not easily surrounded with a coating
of impervious cement, so as to be secured as permanent preparations.
If the worker attempt to raise the cover, and to remove the pre-
paration to a ringed slide, he is almost sure to lose his object, or
so to disarrange it that it is of no further use. If he apply pres-
sure to hold on the cover while he cleans away the superfluous
liquid, he produces a sort of microscopical squash, much delighted
in by dealers in insect preparations, but which is spoiled for all in-
structive uses.

Glycerine can always be floated under preparations of this kind,
by the usual plan of applying bibulous paper on one side of the
cover and a drop of glycerine on the other ; but however carefully
this be managed, the uncovered part of the slide becomes more or
less smeared with the glycerine, which it is extremely difficult or
impossible to remove, so as to get a good adhering surface for the
cements usually employed for securing a permanent mount. It is,
of course, easy enough to mount in glycerine when a preparation is
placed on a ringed slide and the cover-glass has been edged with
cement, or even when a preparation can be placed so that just suffi-
cient glycerine can be applied to run to the edge of the cover and
no farther ; but in the every-day student life of real work these
precautions cannot be taken, and what is wanted is an effective
plan for removing superfluous liquid and binding down a cover-
glass over an object in the exact condition in which it has been
found. During many years I have tried all the plans and cements
that in the course of my reading I have found recommended. Now

192 H. T. WHITTELL ON MOUNTING IN GLYCERINE.

and then some of them have given me a valued slide, but until
lately I have not found any plan upon which I could rely with the
same certainty as when mounting in a ring. Perhaps the best re-
sults have been obtained from passing a layer of very thick
mucilage along the edges of the cover. This mixes with the
glycerine, and, in dry weather (like the summer in Australia), the
whole sets with sufficient firmness to receive coatings of a more
durable cement. Coaguline applied warm has also given me fair
results — say in half the cases tried. The difficulty with both these
fluids is, that they retain some quantity of water after setting, and
this is apt to cause the covering cements to peel off. I have lately
obtained much more satisfactory results, by a simple process which
I venture to ask the Club to assist in testing.

As much glycerine as possible is first removed from the slide by
the usual plan of wiping, and absorbing with bibulous paper round
the edges of the cover. A little gold size — that sold to artists is
best — is rubbed up with a little whiting that has been previously
well dried in an oven, and this is poured into a bottle for use.
Some of the whiting settles to the bottom, but a quantity is held in
suspension, and a larger proportion can always be obtained by
shaking up the bottle. By means of a fine brush a little of this
chalk cement is passed along the edges, and just outside the cover-
glass, taking care to fill up the angle between the slide and cover.
To prevent moving the preparation, it is better in this stage to
imitate, what the artists call " stippling," than to take the brush
along in one sweep. The cement falls from the brush as one pro-
ceeds, and it is easy to see when enough has been applied. In my
own practice, while taking care to have sufficient cement to fill up
the angles, I aim at having as narrow a line as possible around the
edges of the preparation. The slide is now set aside for twelve or
twenty-four hours, when the layer of cement will have become
tough, and will be found to hold the cover effectively in its place.
The slide is now put into water to wash off all trace of glycerine,
and is afterwards set on end to drain and dry. A ring of gold size
or other cement may afterwards be applied in successive layers, and
in due time, when all is firmly set, a finishing layer of white cement
or of asphalt may be applied.

I have now many slides prepared as described, and I seldom fail
to preserve anything I wish. As an illustration, I may mention a
rather severe test in which the plan answered admirably. I had

H. T. WHITTELL ON MOUNTING IN GLYCERINE. 193

dissected for study the viscera of a blow-fly, and I found on my
slide all the parts, from stomach to termination of intestine, the
kidney tubes, liver tubes, oviduct, and several ova, all well dis-
played in situ — an object worth preserving. I knew that the
slightest movement would disarrange the specimen, and pressure
would ruin it. The ova and lower part of the intestine are rather
thick objects for mounting without a cell, but the chalk cement filled
up the angles between the cover and slide so effectively that I had
no trouble in obtaining a firm and permanent specimen for my
cabinet.

When I was in London I wished to mount some Polyzoa in cells
made from rings of thin cover glass, but was unable to purchase
such rings except at a price which was prohibitory to their use in
large quantities. I was told the trouble of making them was so
great that it would not pay to sell them at lower rates.

Dr. Beale's plan of making these rings, by fastening a cover-
glass on a metal ring with melted marine glue, and afterwards
knocking out the centre with the end of a file, remelting the glue
to loosen the ring, and afterwards cleaning it off, is a troublesome
time-taking process. After experiment, I find that thick gum
mucilage may be substituted for the marine glue, and that the cells
can then be made with great ease.

Take any number of the thicker glass rings or squares used for
making microscopical cells, fasten on each a piece of cover-glass by
means of gum mucilage, let them stand in a warm place from 24 to
48 hours, till the gum is firmly set. After this break out the
centres as in Dr. Beale's method ; the part of the thin glass
fastened to the rings will remain intact. It is well, as a precaution,
to scratch round the inside of the ring with a writing diamond
before knocking out the centre. If desired, the inside edge of the
ring may now be smoothed with a fine file ; but I believe the
ragged edges are an advantage in giving greater firmness to the
adhesion of the glass in its after uses. The centres being cleared,
the whole are thrown into water and left there for a few hours.
After which, the gum being dissolved, the thin glass rings will be
found loose, clean, and ready for use. The beginner will probably
break a few pieces before he acquires the knack of clearing the
centres, but after a little practice nine out of twelve will remain
perfect. Thick rings with broad edges will be found best to com-
mence with.

194

PROCEEDINGS.

August 11, 1882. — Conversational Meeting.

Mr. F. W. Andrew.
Mr. H. R. Gregory.

The following objects were exhibited : —

Sphreraphides in Chickweed leaf, polarized ...

DapJtnia Schafferi, with parasitic rotifers,")

Palate of Black Slug ... ... ... )

Early stages of embryo of the Chick, speci-")

mens prepared by Prof. Fritz Meyer, and > The Club Microscope,
presented by the Dinner Committee )

Attendance — Members, 22; Visitors, 0.

August 25th, 1882. — Ordinary Meeting.
Dr. M. C. Cooke, M.A., A.L.S , President, in the chair.

The minutes of the preceding ordinary meeting and of the 17th annnal
meeting were read and confirmed.

The following gentlemen were balloted for and duly elected members of
the Club :— Mr. W. H. Field, Mr. T. J. Gibbs, Mr. Christopher Jackman,
Mr. George Powell, and Mr. T. Williams.

The following additions to the Library were announced.

" Proceedings of the Linnean Society " ... From Mr. T. C. White.

"Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society" „ the Society.

" Transactions of the Essex Field Club

" Proceedings of the Belgian Microscopicaj )
Society." ... ... ... ... )

" Science Gossip "

" The Northern Microscopist "...

" American Naturalist"

"American Monthly Microscopical Journal "...

"Kent's Infusoria" Part 6

" Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science "

" Annals of Natural History "...

" Micrographic Dictionary." Part 14

" Bowerbank's Sponges." Vol.4

" Cooke's Fresh Water Alga? "

>»

>»

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a

Publisher.
Editor.

In exchange.

By subscription.
Purchased.

Pay Society.
Purchased.

The thanks of the meeting were unanimously voted to the donors.

195

A photograph of Mr. J. W. Meacher was presented for the Club Album.

The Secretary called the special attention of the members to the valuable
donation from the Dinner Committee, which, although announced at the
last meeting, was not sufficiently noticed at the time from pressure of other
matters. It consisted of a series of specimens of sections of the embryo of
the chick, prepared by Prof. Fritz Meyer, at the Zoological Station at
Naples, the study being the direct outcome of a visit from Prof. Balfour.
They were all very early stages, and though the exact periods were not
given, as the specimens were numbered, no doubt the particulars could be
ascertained ; but the most advanced was of very much earlier age than those
which were generally to be got. He was sure that the Club would feel very
much indebted to the Dinner Committee for making them a gift of so in-
teresting a character.

Mr. Michael thought there was no doubt as to their being able to get the
exact date of the periods of incubation ; the practice being always to have
every specimen numbered with reference to records made at the time.
Observations of this kind had been also made upon the embryo of the Goby,
of which a series of 35 had been prepared, and in every instance the exact
period had been noted. He only regretted that they should not be able to
get any more like them, as Dr. Meyer had ceased to mount them.

The President read an account of some observations which he made some
years ago, as to the number of Foraminifera found in a given quantity of
chalk, confirmatory of the previous estimates by Ehrenberg.

The President called attention to the following opinion announced by
Pringsheim* of the functions of the radiating protoplasmic threads from
the nucleus in the cells of Spirogyra, a drawing being made upon the black-
board. " An anatomical fact, hitherto unrecognized in the organization of
Spiroffyra, may here be noticed. The threads of protoplasm extending out-
wards from the central plasma mass in each cell do not, as was supposed,
end in the general protoplasmic lining of the cell wall, but each passes
directly or by its branches to the internal surface of a chlorophyll band,
and there dilates in a trumpet-like manner, and grasps, as it were, an
amylum-body. If, as sometimes occurs, there is no amylum body visible at
the point where the thread is in contact with the chlorophyll-band, the spot
may be considered one where such a body will subsequently appear. As
the amylum-bodies increase by division, the grasping protoplasmic thread
also divides by forking, and thns each daughter amylum-body is grasped by
a protoplasmic thread ; and, on the other hand, the protoplasmic threads
may divide in the first instance, and a new amylum-body is subsequently
formed in the chlorophyll-band at the extremity of the new protoplasmic
thread. As an outcome of this mode of increase, the adjacent amylum-bodies
are often connected bridgeways by threads of protoplasm ; and as longitu-
dinal division of the chlorophyll-bands often proceeds synchronously with
the multiplication of the amylum-bodies and the forking of the protoplasm
threads, the amylum-bodies so connected may be in different spires of the

* "Pringsheim's Researches on Chlorophyll," p. 81.

196

chlorophyll -band. In the angles of the forks of the branching protoplasmic
threads there is usually visible, in strongly growing Spirogyra filaments, a
thickening of the substance of the thread in which a vesicle, perhaps a kind
of amylum-body, lies. There is then, in Spirogyra, a direct connection
through the threads between the amylum-bodies themselves, and also
between them and the nucleus."

Mr. Michael called attention to a slide which he had brought for exhibi-
tion of a specimen of the genus Nothrus, the individuals in which were not
so highly chitinized as in some genei"a nearly allied to them — the leathery
cuticle existing in the adult. Being thus deprived of their ordinary means
of defence, it was curious to notice what other means were taken for the
protection of their bodies. As a rule the Oribatidce had rounded arched
bodies upon which nothing would lodge, but in the particular genus mentioned
the body was chiefly oblong or square, and flat or concave, it was also
furnished with a number of curved hairs, which effectually prevented dirt
from falling off, so that these creatures were in the habit of carrying about
a quantity of earth upon their backs, which concealed and protected them
from their enemies.

Votes of thanks to the President and to Mr. Michael were unanimously
passed.

Announcements of excursions, &c, for the ensuing month were made,
and the proceedings terminated with the usual conversazione, at which the
following objects were exhibited : —

Hydrodictyon utriculatum Epistylis anastatica Mr. J. D. Hardy.
JYothrus sjJiniger... ... ... ... ... Mr. A. D. Michael.

Section of the Meteorite that fell at Ensis-

heim Nov. 7, 1492

Attendance— Members, 30 ; Visitors, 1.

' j Mr. Geo. Smith.

September 8, 1882. — Conversational Meeting.

The following objects were exhibited : —

Hairs on petal of Pansy ... ... ... Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Polyxenus lagurus ... ... ... ... Mr. A. L. Corbett.

Cyclosis in Nitella flex His ... ... ... Mr. H. G. Glasspoole.

Lagena sulcata, from Dog's Bay, Ireland - Mr. H. Morland.
Navicula rhomboides, in bal&am, shown by

Powell and Lealand's oil-immersion l-25th

objective N.A. 1 38, with dry achromatic

condenser, direct light and full aperture
Lingual teeth of Aplysia leporina ... ... Mr. J. J. Vezey.

Attendance — Members, 32 j Visitors, 2.

Mr. E. M. Nelson.

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197

The 200th Ordinary Meeting. — September 22nd, 1882.

Dr. M. C. Cooke, M.A., A.L.S., &c, President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
Mr. Wm. H. Mills and Mr. George Moore were elected members.
The following additions to the Library and Cabinet were announced, and
the thanks of the meeting voted to the respective donors : — ■

" Proceedings of the Royal Society" ... ... From the Society.

„ " Norfolk and Norwich Natural)

History Society " ... )

" Proceedings of the Belgian Microscopical")

Society" )

" 116th. Report of the Chester Natural)

History Society " )

" Science Gossip " ... ... „ the Publisher.

" Northern Microscopist " ... ... ... „ ,, Editor.

" American Naturalist " ... ... ... In Exchange.

"American Monthly MicroscopicalJournal"... „ ,,

« List of Foreign Correspondents, Smith- ) prom fche Institntioni
sonion Institution " ... ... ... )

" Micrographic Dictionary." Part 15 ... Purchased.

" Annals of Natural History"

" Cooke's Fresh Water Alga3 "

" Grevillea "

" Cole's Studies in Microscopical Science " ... By Subscription.
"Cameron's Phylophagus Hymenoptera,""> „ o • .

Vol. i. ... )

" Challenger Reports," Vol. v. ... ... Purchased.

One Slide Mr. H. G. Glasspoole.

Mr. J. D. Hardy exhibited and described a gas lamp for microscopic use,
which was an adaptation of the Albo- Carbon burner to a table lamp-stand.
In reply to a question from Dr. Matthews, Mr. Ingpen explained that the
substance known as Albo-Carbon was common crude Napthaline, which was
deposited by condensation in the gas mains in cold weather, causing stop-
pages of pipes, &c. ; the gas burner known by this name was a contrivance
for restoring this element to the gas, and to some extent super-carburetting
it at the burner.

Mr. BadGock said the saving of gas would more than compensate for the
extra cost of burner and carbon, as a better light could be got in this way
with a No. 1 burner than with ordinary gas and a No. 7. With proper care
there was no smell with it to any extent.

Mr. E. M. Nelson exhibited and described an arrangement for facilitating
the fixing of objectives to nosepiece of microscope.

Some discussion as to whether the idea was new then took place, during
Journ. Q. M. C, Series II., No. 4. o.

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198

which it was stated to have been suggested some yeai's ago in " Science
Gossip."

Mi\ Nelson said that Dr. Morris, who was now in England from Aus-
tralia, and had been searching all over the country for diatoms, had at length
met with the object of his search in a very fine gathering of AmphijAeura
Pellucida, some of which was exhibited in the room.

Dr. Ralph expressed his desire of making communications and exchanges
with the Society on his return to Australia. Also that if any more of the
exnvigs of Larvae, such as he brought to the last meeting of the Club, were
required he would send a supply, though he feared that the lowness of
temperature added to the risk of injury in the transit might be unfavour-
able to development. He also left a pamphlet on the subject at which he
had been working for some years, " On experiments with the blood and the
mode of chemicalizing it."

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Dr. Ealph.

Mr. Priest called attention to some notes of Prof. Moseley's on Pelagic
Life, which he recommended to the perusal of those who were interested in
the subject.

Mr. Tngpen read a paper by Herr Carl Zeiss " On the method of using
Prof. Abbe's test plate."

Mr. Karop read a paper " On a method of showing Bacillus," by Dr.
Heneage Gibbes.

The thanks of the meeting were returned to readers of papers. The en-
gagements for the ensuing month were announced, and the proceedings
concluded with the usual conversazione, at which the following objects were
exhibited : —

Sections of White Coral, transverse and| -. r -p -ry A n( q rpw

longitudinal J

Stentors ... ... ... ... ... ... Mr. E. Dadswell.

Alcyonella Van Bedeni ... ... ... ... Mr. W. Goodwin.

Dr. Morris's Amplxipleura pellucida x 1200^

diam., shown by oil-immersion l-12thN.A. > Mr. E. M. Nelson.

P42, direct light without stop ... )

Section of Butcher's Broom, stained Mr. P. Oxley.

Spherical crystals of Inuline in sections of ) ivr * T W "R rl

root of Taraxicum and tuber of Dahlia )

Attendance — Members, 51 ; Visitors, 3.

199

October 13, 1882. — Conversational Meeting.

The following objects were exhibited : —

Fungus on leaf of Horseradish Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Seed of Collomia grandijlora, showing the| ,, ™ p

spiral fibres of the seed coat... ... j

Tachina sjjinipennis, showing the curious") m ' H F Freeman

sexual organs ... ... ... ... )

Sections of Spines of Echini ... Dr. Matthews.

Various test -objects shown by Messrs. PowelK

and Lealands new oil immersion T ^ ob- > Mr. E. M. Nelson.

jective, N.A. 1*42 ... ... ... )

Wing of an Alpine Moth Mr. J. M. Offord.

Section of stem of Viburnum lantana, double

Mr. J. W. Heed,
stained

Slightly enlarged photographs of Micro.-j M r. Washington Teas-

scopical objects, printed by the platino- > •, ,

type process ... ... ... ... )

Calcareous Sponges ... ... Mr. J. G. Waller.

Attendance — Members, 53 ; Visitors, 6.

October 27th, 1882.— Ordinary Meeting.
Dr. M. C. Cooke, M.A., A.L.S., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
The following gentlemen were balloted for and duly elected members of
the Club : — Mr. Fredk. Wm. Brown and Mr. Edgar Thurston.
The following donations to the Club were announced : —

" Proceedings of the Royal Society " From the Society.

„ ,, " Postal Microscopical")

Society" J "

w The American Naturalist " ... ... ... In exchange.

"The American Monthly Microscopical")

Journal" ... ... ... ... )

Dr. Cooke's " Myxomicetes " ...

" Proceedings of the Belgian Microscopical J -n ,, „ . ,
c, . , „ } From the Society.

Society" ) J

" Dr. Ralph's Micro-Chemical experiments") ,, A ..

„. , r [ „ the Author,

on Blood, ' &c. ... ... ... ... )

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200

" Challenger Reports," Vol. v.,.. ... ... Purchased.

" Catalogae of Fossil Foraminifera in British )
Museum" ... ... ... ... )

"Annals of Natural History " ...

" Coles' Natural History Studies/' 19 to 24 ...

'* Dippel's Treatise on the Microscope "

Two Slides of Diatoms ... ... ... ... From Dr. Partridge, of

Stroud.

The thanks of the Meeting were voted to the Donors.

Mr. E. M. Nelson exhibited and described Zeiss's dissecting microscope.

Dr. Ramsden enquired whether the instrument was capable of resolving
the striae on Navicula Lyra into dots ?

Mr Nelson said no ; but it would show the striae.

Mr. Ingpen could fully confirm all that Mr. Nelson had said as to the
merits of these lenses, having been in the habit of using them for some
time. He had not seen the low power one before, but welcomed it as a
very useful addition to the series. He had always advocated the use of
good lenses where low powers were required, although often told that a
common watchmaker's eye-glass was all that was wanted for dissecting
purposes ; theoretically, however, it could be proved that an achromatic
lens was necessary, and he thought they were much indebted to Mr. Zeiss
for bringing out lenses of this kind, and thus enabling them to save their
eyes as much as possible. With his own defective vision he found he could
do ten times the work with one of these lenses that he could with a common
glass, and he was quite sure that there was a very great saving of the eyes
in using glasses of this sort.

Mr. T. C. White inquired what was the working distance in the case of
the smaller of the two microscopes exhibited, because if it were only a iin.
or even ^in., he thought it would be rather difficult to work under. He
quite agreed with the opinion that it was a necessity to have good lenses to
dissect with. He had lately been using Stephenson's binocular with its
erecting prism, and being engaged on a paper upon the salivary glands of
insects, he had been making a number of small dissections, such as the
salivary glands of a flea, and the importance of getting the object near to
the head was very much impressed upon him — if it was a long way off the
operator was very apt to get the needles in the wrong place.

Mr. Nelson said that the focal distance of the lens was -fV n - w ith the
eyepiece, and gave a power of 100. Without the eyepiece the focus was
considerably shortened, although the power was reduced to about 20. A
watchmaker's lens of the same power would be considerably shorter.

Mr. T. C. W T hite asked if the lens gave a good field of view ? He thought
the requisites for a dissecting microscope were a good field, good definition,
and that the object should be near at hand.

Mr. Ingpen said at first sight the field seemed to be extremely small, but
if the eye were put close down to the eyepiece it would be found that by
looking sideways a good sized field could be obtained. If they wanted to

201

dissect with a power of 100, they must of necessity be manipulating with
very small points, and in a very small space. These lenses were made in
several forms and with various powers, but no one should give them up
because they seemed to have such small fields.

Mr. Michael said he should not like Mr. White's remark to go out as to
Stephenson's binocular without some qualification. He had used it him-
self for insect dissection, and could only say that he found the relative
distance between the head and the hands to be a matter of the greatest
possible comfort. He had worked in this way with a Siebert £in. of very
much shorter focus than an English ^in., and he did not think he could
possibly have done it with the head so near the hands as in the little instru-
ment before them. It was a most charming little instrument, but for fine
dissections he thought it was not so convenient as the Stephenson. The
binocular arrangement was also a great comfort to the eyes, and was very
useful in giving a notion as to whether an object was above or below
another in the field; although it did not profess to be stereoscopic, practi-
cally it was so ; the large flat stage was also very convenient.

Mr. T. C. White said he did not wish to give rise to any false impressions
as to the value of the Stephenson binocular. On the contrary, he liked it
exceedingly, and the only thing he felt disposed to object to was its large
size. Of its value as a binocular there can be no doubt whatever.

Mr. Sigsworth said it appeared to him a question whether the invention
of the larger form exhibited could be credited to Zeiss, for he had one him-
self by Chevalier made thirty years ago which seemed to be exactly the
same.

A paper by Mr. J. W. Morris, F.L.S., of Bath, " On the fibro-vascular
bundles in Ferns, and their value in determining affinities of genera," was
read by Mr. Curties.

The President said that it should be borne in mind that the assertions
made in the early part of the paper would apply equally to all other classes
included in the study of Botany. It was true no doubt that Linnaeus gave a
generic name to a certain set of plants, and that ten years afterwards some
one else gave another name to the same, so that it happened in the course of
half a century that they got a number of synonymy, each accurate enough
in its way, according to the light which the observer had at the time he was
writing, and which justified him in discarding the classification adopted by
those possessing less light who had gone before. This, however, did not
prove that the student of the present day was consequently justified in
entirely altering the plan upon which all classification had hitherto been
based, and he did not see that the proposal applied more to Ferns than to
any other branch of Natural History. As to the value of adopting a plan
based upon peculiarities of sti'ucture, such as was recommended in the
paper, it would be found incontrovertibly that such a plan would be of no
use for the purpose, and that certainly it would be of no use to propose to
classify Ferns in this manner whilst it was not equally applied to other
structures. At present the great and primary position was that in which

202

the fruit held the first place, so that Ferns were accordingly classed with
reference to the positions of the sori. It generally happened that when
specimens were sent from abroad to be examined and named at Kew, they
only got a portion of the frond, and this was enongh, but in future, if this
plan were adopted, they would have to write and say to correspondents
abroad, " It is of no use to send us your oak leaf or acorn, we can do nothing
with them. You must send us a section of the stem of the tree on which
they grew." He had known many other instances in which similar sug-
gestions had been made, and he knew also how they appeared to practical
men. This suggestion had itself been mooted before, but they had come to
the conclusion that however useful it might be to have an acquaintance
with these features of structure, they were not of any use as a means of
classification. Then, if they were to adopt the idea of classifying according
to these "spread eagles" found in cross sections, it must be remembered
that they differed in appearance in different portions of the stem; which
portion, then, were they to adopt ? Should it be 6in. high ? or half way
up ? or where ? And in the face of this difficulty he thought that what was
uncertain could hardly be relied upon as a method of classification. They
were, nevertheless, much indebted to the author of the paper for many of
the suggestions which it contained, and certainly for the very excellent
sections and figures with which he had illustrated the subject.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Mr. Nelson and Mr. Morris for
their communications, and to Mr. Curties for reading the paper.

Announcements of Meetings for the ensuing month were then made, and
the proceedings terminated with the usual Conversazione, at which the
following objects were exhibited : —

Stellate hairs from leaf of Olive Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Sections of Fern-stems, showing fibro-vascular ^
bundles, in illustration of Mr. Morris's > Mr. T. Curties.

• ** ••■ ... ••• *

paper..
othrus
carrying the cast dorsal skins

Nothrus theleproctus, showing the mode of") i\r • A D Michael

... j

Carboniferous Limestone, from Microzoa Bed, ) -^ ^ j g m ^h
Clifton ... ... ... ... ... j

Attendance — Members, 56; Visitor, 1.

203

November 10, 1882. — Conversational Meeting.

i

The following objects were exhibited : —

Leaf and flower of Verbena, showing gland

lar and beaded hairs ...

Tube of Marine Annelid

Wing of a Butterfly from Madagascar
Ovaries and Stinging Organs of Wasp
Organs of Mouth of Parasitic Bee, Melecta\
2?u7ictata mounted sideways, and in their I

natural position ... ... ... )

" Kieselguhr " Flint mud from Hanover ; ^

used for making Dynamite ; containing a

new species of Cyclotella, called by Mr.

Kitton C. viinuta ... ... ... J

Laxwa of Coccinella,

Cartilage from ear of Mouse, stained ...

Aviplripleura Vaniea, in checks, shown with '

T \- oil-immersion objective N.A. T43
Human Spermatozoon (preparation by Mr. )■

Heneage Gibbes), showing a division in I

the tail ... ... ... ... ... )

Statoblasts of Meyeni plumosa, Bombay
Leaf of Rosmarinas, vertical and horizontal ^

sections
Vertical section of Lavender ...
Winged peduncle of Tilia europcea

Laomedea, with tentacles expanded .,

Lophopus crystallinus ...

Hymeniacidon macilenta, a silicious Sponge >

showing the mode in which the spicules

are arranged in fasces
Raphiodesma sordida ... ... ... 3

Attendance — Members, 59 j Visitors, 5.

Mr. F. W. Andrew.

Mr W. R. Browne.
Mr. A. Button.
Mr. F. Fitch.

Mr. H. E. Freeman.

}■ Mr. H. G. Glasspoole.

Mr. A. D. Michael.
Mr. H. Morland.

Mr. E. M. Nelson.

Mr. B. W. Priest.

Mr. J. W. Peed.

Mr. G. Sturt.
Mr. J. G. Tasker.

► Mr. J. G. Waller.

204

November 24th, 1882. — Ordinary Meeting.
Dr. M. C. Cooke, M.A., A L.S., &c, President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the pi'eceding meeting were read and confirmed.
Mr. Thomas Carr was balloted for and duly elected a member of the
Club.

The following donations to the Club were announced: —

" Proceedings of the Croydon Microscopical') ^ ,, „ . .
_, ., „ J ■ t From the Society.

Society" ) J

" Journal and Annual Report of theBraintree")

and Booking Microscopical Society " J

" Science Gossip " „ Publisher.

Authors.

Beprint of paper by Rev. L. J. Mills and Mr.*)

Kitton " On Diatoms in Peruvian Guano "J
" Proceedings of the Belgian Microscopical") Society

Society" )

" The American Monthly Microscopical") j expnail a-e

Journal" ... ... ... ... )

ft Coles' Studies in Microscopical Science," \ B g^scription.

Nos. 25-28 f

The Author.
Mr. Kitton.
Mr. Morris.

" Annals of Natural History " Purchased.

" Micrographic Dictionary." Part 15...
" Braithwaite's British Moss Flora" ...
24 Slides, Diatoms

12 Slides, Sections of Stems of Ferns...
Six Slides, Statoblasts of Fresh Water Sponges Mr. Priest.
The thanks of the meeting were voted to the Donors.
The President announced that the Committee had been enabled to arrange
for a series of six illustrated demonstrations, to be given on Gossip Nights in
class-room No. 8, the list of which he read to the meeting.

Mr. Hailes read a letter received from Mr. Kitton, explaining some notes
which accompanied the slides presented.

Mr. Priest read a paper " On the Statoblasts of Fresh Water Sponges/'
which he illustrated by numerous diagrams and slides.

Mr. J. G. Waller expressed the pleasure he felt at hearing the paper read,
and to which he had little to add. Respecting the variations in the
Spongilla Fluviatilis, he was very glad to find that there was a new classifi-
cation, for in Dr. Bowerbank's volume a new species was mentioned as
having been found in the river Exe ; but he could only say that if species
were to be named on this principle, at least six new species might be found
in the river Thames.

Votes of thanks to Mr. Kitton and Mr. Priest were unanimously carried.
Dr. T. Spencer Cobbold said he had brought for exhibition some speci-
mens of Limnea Truncatula.

205

Mr. Guimaraens read a paper in which he criticized the statements made
by Mr. Hensoldt in a paper printed in the Journal of the Club u On Fluid
Cavities in Meteorites."

Mr. Hailes read the rejoinder by Mr. Hensoldt to Mr. Guimaraens'
remarks.

Dr. J. D. Brown said he wished to say a word before the matter was
closed, as he had himself introduced Mr. Hensoldt, and knew that he had the
specimen referred to for a long time before he found the bubbles. The
section and also a portion of the Meteorite were there in the room, and if
they had sufficient experts present to form a small committee, he thought
it might be a good way of settling the question.

Mr. Guimaraens was about to offer some further observations, when

The President, intervening, suggested that as there seemed to be some
degree of personal matter mixed up with the discussion, it would be un-
desirable to prolong it. The appointment of a committee was hardly
within their province, and the question was not one upon which they felt
called upon to decide.

Mr. Ingpen said that in the course of some correspondence on the sub-
ject there had been some doubt as to the date. He would therefore state
that it should have been March 19, 1878, and not 1879, as originally stated.

The President, on appeal to the feelings of the members on the subject,
decided to close the discussion, and votes of thanks to Dr. Cobbold, Mr.
Guimaraens, and Mr. Hailes for their communications, were unanimously
carried.

Attendance — Members, 70 ; Visitors, 5.

December 8th, 1882. — Conversational Meeting.

A demonstration was given in one of the class rooms by Mr. J. W. Groves,
F.R.M.8., on "The History of a Stained Section of an Animal Structure."
Commencing with the material, which he said should be obtained as fresh as
possible, Mr. Groves passed rapidly through the various stages of preparing
the specimen, carrying out as far as practicable the whole process before the
meeting.

The first step was, he explained, to properly harden the specimen. Many
people failed in this, either by putting the fresh material into too strong a
fluid, which hardened the surface without penetrating, or they did not get
the material sufficiently fresh, and which had therefore undergone morbid
changes before being placed in the preserving fluid. Again, with too large a
lump of material the outside alone would be hardened.

Mr. Groves then described the various hardening media and the proper
strengths of each. The material he said should not be placed at once in
strong alcohol, but first in say 65° for 24 hours, then transferred to stronger.
The hardening fluid should be changed frequently — at the end of a fort-

206

night the specimen would be well hardened — and should be transferred to
alcohol. The material should be cut into tolerably thin slices in suitable
directions, not cutting quite through the lump. The material placed in a
piece of net or gauze or antiseptic bandage is then to be hung in a bottle
filled with the hardening fluid, so as to keep the material from touching the
bottom, or it might be attached to a piece of string with the label hanging
outside, thus permitting any refuse to drop to the bottom of the bottle
leaviDg the specimen clean. (Specimens were handed round ; some pro-
perly, others not properly hardened.)

The nest step was to place the specimen in preserving fluid. The best
fluid for this purpose was spirit of 95°.

When cutting by hand, or with some of the section cutters, it was neces-
sary to embed the specimen in a mixture of equal parts of wax and oil. A
small paper boat half filled with this mixture being provided, the specimen
(if in alcohol, first getting rid of the spirit by a few minutes' exposure to the
air) is to be dipped into the wax and allowed to fall to the bottom ; a drop
of wax being first formed to serve as a pedestal, to keep the material from
falling quite to the bottom, the end of the boat in which the specimen is
placed should be marked, otherwise it might happen when the mistake
was discovered nothing would remain to hold the specimen when cutting.
Another plan was to use a short tube with a cork at the end, but this was
not so certain in its operation.

Mr. Groves then introduced and described several forms of microtome,
one being practically the original Sterling microtome, which he had
described to the Club, with Dr. Matthew's improvements. The wooden
plug in this machine prevented any rocking or rotation of the wax. The
razor best adapted for use with it was one with a straight edge. The
blade need not be flat, but it must have a straight edge. The motion in
cutting should not be a sliding or pushing cut, but a sort of rotating cut.
The direction in which to make the cut was determined by the material
which only experience could give. With freezing microtomes it was necessary
to get rid of the alcohol. Take a small piece of the material not more than
^inch thick, leave it in water for 24 hours, transfer to gum mucilage with a
trace of camphor water (five drops of w y ater to an ounce of gum) to prevent
the gum freezing into a hard mass like ice, which would chip the razor.
The gum would freeze into the consistency of hard cheese.

In preparing the mixture of ice and salt the ice must be thoroughly
pounded, first with the ice prick, then with a mallet, until it was a perfect
powder. This must be thoroughly mixed with an equal quantity of salt.

Dr. Pritchard's machine was very portable and efficient. To use it the
cylinder was placed in a bowl of ice and salt, the specimen being placed on
the top of the cylinder with a little gum mucilage and the felt cap put on.
When frozen the cap was placed on the other end of the cylinder which then
served as a handle.

In cutting specimens embedded in wax and oil the razor must be kept
constantly wet, spirit was preferable for this purpose, and should be placed

207

in tall narrow jar?, care being taken not to damage the edge of the razor in
withdrawing it. The razor should be held in much the same way as in
shaving. If cutting without a machine the material should be held firmly
but lightly.

Iu Stirling's microtome the trough was not nearly large enough. It should
be filled with the freezing mixture and some material wrapped round it.
Mr. Groves considered the original Williams' microtome the best form of
any. It was necessary to keep the material thoroughly covered with gum.
It was also necessary to fill the space between the two surfaces with freezing
mixture so as to ensure rapid freezing.

In order to remove the sections from the razor, a very thin and flexible
artist's spatula answered well, and the sections should be placed in spirit.
If frozen in a Williams' machine they should be placed in a little cold
water. It was better not to touch the specimen at all. If provided with a
large shallow dish, the top of the machine might be taken off and the
sections floated off ; warm water was preferable to cold, as it dissolved the
freezing mixture more rapidly, and there was less danger of the specimen
getting torn or damaged.

In the ordinary form of the ether freezing microtome, the ether spray was
directed upon the brass plate. In the form he was using provision was made
for getting rid of the fumes of ether, and was adapted for cutting thick or
thin lumps of material. Small thick glass salt cellars were very useful for
clearing specimens in clean water.

Mr. Groves then proceeded to cut some sections of spinal cord, remarking
that it was essential to get the razor perfectly level or the sections would not
be parallel. To test the level, the two ends of the razor were tested until the
two cuts were exactly parallel.

As to the thickness of the section he observed the facility with which ex-
tremely thin sections could be cut. It was possible to cut sections so thin
that tbey would not hold together. The best thickness was a cell or a cell
and a half thick. With practice it was possible to cut as thin as that with
Pritchard's machine which was practically cutting by hand. A charming
feature of Williams' machine was the marvellous speed "with which it could
be used, and the facility it afforded for removing one specimen and replacing
it by another was of great advantage.

Mr. Groves then cut a number of sections with great rapidity, and placed
the sections at the disposal of those members who might wish to have them.
He then went on to observe that the next step was to preserve the sections.
For this purpose it was necessary to leave the sections in the trough until the
gum was dissolved out. If embedded in wax less time would be sufficient.
If the sections rolled up in cutting, by transferring them to water for a little
time and replacing them in spirit they would float out perfectly flat.

Staining was then illustrated andexplained. Staining fluids were of two
kinds, alcoholic and aqueous. Logwood and aniline blue-black were very
good stains, but it was necessary to get rid of every trace of spirit. The
most useful stains were Beale's carmine, pink carmine, logwood, aniline blue-

208

-

black, Nicholson's magenta, eosin, Picra carmine, gold, and nitrate of silver.
These would stain almost anything. Almost any of them could be used,
first one and then another. Mr. Groves then described the preparation of
the carmine stain and also the logwood stain, which he considered easy to
prepare, though some persons found it difficult. The aniline dyes were also
useful. It was necessary, however, to use some of the stains on perfectly
fresh material. The gold and nitrate of silver especially required the
specimen to be very fresh. If it was removed from the body more than
twenty minutes it was useless to use those stains.

When the specimens were in water it was necessary to dehydrate them.
If good specimens were desired, it was necessary to use first weak alcohol,
then stronger.

The next step was clearing the sections, but if they were to be mounted in
glycerine this process was not necessary. The best fluid for clearing was oil
of cloves for specimens intended to be mounted in balsam.

In glycerine mounting absolute cleanliness was required. It was best to
transfer the section into dilute glycerine, then into stronger. He preferred
placing the object in a watch-glass, adding a few drops of glycerine now and
then, and keeping all under a glass shade for perhaps a fortnight.

A knife shaped like a lancet, with the edges blunted, so as not to
cut the specimens, was very useful for moving sections from one fluid to
another.

Mounted needles are best fixed in a quill. There was nothing equal to it.
A rigid handle for mounting needles was most objectionable.

Mr. Groves then proceeded to mount sections in glycerine and also in
balsam in order to illustrate his remarks, and passed round the slides for the
inspection of the members. He then went on to remark that in mounting
from oil of cloves it was desirable to get rid of the oil as much as possible
by draining it off before pouring on the balsam.

New Canada balsam was useless for mounting, while if dry it did not soak
thoroughly into the specimens. The balsam should be placed in an oven
until it was hard, and chipped easily, and then dissolved in benzole until
about the consistency of molasses.

Briefly summarised the process was get the specimen as fresh as possible,
harden it well, cut as thin as necessary, stain it carefully, dry it out of water
with spirit, clear with oil of cloves, and mount in balsam.

With very large sections it was inconvenient to use the lifter. In such
cases the cover glass could be used as a lifter. The cover glass being placed
on the solid glass cap and the specimen arranged on it, the balsam could be
poured on and the slip lowered on to the cover. Such a specimen could not
be examined safely for two or three weeks.

All mounted specimens, especially those in fluid, should be kept flat, not on
edge. If kept in racked boxes, the boxes should be stood on end. He
strongly recommended that all slides should be labelled as soon as put up, as
even if the structure could be recognized they would probably forget the
animal it came from.

209

The following objects were exhibited : —

Transverse section of mesentery of Calf ... Mr. W. I. Curties.
Foraminifera from Porto Seguro ... ... Mr. H. E. Freeman.

Palpus of Spider ... ... ... Mr. H. G. Glasspoole.

Supposed new Genus of Marine Worm ... Mr. W. Goodwin.
Young Oysters, polarized ... ... Mr. H. Morland.

(Edogonium showing oospores .. ... Mr. J. W. Reed.

Section of Meteorite showing fused crust ... Mr. G. Smith.
Mr. Groves also showed in illustration of his demonstration the following
sections : —

Cornea of Frog.
Nerve fibres medullated.
Tactile hairs from lips of Cat.
Tongue of Dog.
iEsophagus and trachea.
Stomach of Dog, cardiac extremity.
Attendance — Members, G6 ; Visitors, 11.

December 22nd, 1882. — Ordinary Meeting.
Dr. M. C. Cooke, M.A., A.L.S., &c, President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed.
Mr. E. Bucknall and Mr. J. B. Hilditch were balloted for and duly elected
Members of the Club.

The following donations and additions to the Club Library and Cabinet
were announced : —

<< Journal of the Royal Microscopical} prom ^ goci .
Society" ... ... ... )

i( Journal of the Postal Microscopical Society " „ „

" Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural")
History Society " ... ... )

" The Scientific Roll." Nos. 6, 7, and 8 ... „ the Publisher.
"The Analyst" ... ... ... „ „

"The Northern Microscopist" ... ... In exchange.

" The American Monthly Microscopical J
Journal" ... ... ... )

"Coles' Studies." Nos. 29 to 32 ... ... Purchased.

" Annals of Natural History " ... ... ,,

The thanks of the Meeting were voted to the donors.

Mr. Scofield suggested that the donations and additions to the property of
the Club acquired, say that evening, should remain upon the table during
the next conversational evening. At present the books went at once into the

>»

23

book case, where, of course, the members had access to them ; yet he
thought they might very well be laid on the table for an evening

The President said that no doubt Mr. Smith, the Librarian, would be glad
to meet the wishes of the members as far as he could.

The Secretary observed there must be a stipulation that the books should
not be removed from the table, specially set apart for the purpose, under any
circumstances. As to the slides for the Cabinet, it might be arranged that
Mr. Coles' slides should be left on the table for an evening, but as to other
specimens he thought they should be left with the Curator.

Mr. Hailes read a communication from Dr. Whittell, written by him since
his return to Australia, " On making cells from thin glass," and u Hints on
mounting in glycerine."

After reading the paper, Mr. Hailes remarked that he had long used a
similar method of forming thin glass cells, but that he used shellac instead
of gum. He had a few metal plates with holes of suitable sizes made in
them, and these plates he warmed one at a time, and fixed on the thin glass
with shellac. After fixing on two or three, the first rings would be cold and
the centre could be readily knocked out and the hole trimmed up with a
half-round file, then by warming the ring and slipping off the cell he had
very few failures. As to mounting in glycerine he had tried a plan he had
seen mentioned in one of the Journals a little while ago, and which seemed
to promise well. After wiping off as much of the surplus glycerine as could
be easily removed he put a ring of gum mucilage round the cover. When
this ring had set he dropped a little bichromate of potash upon the gum, and
exposed it to the action of the light. In the course of an hour the gum
would be converted into an insoluble resin, and the slide could be safely
washed in water and finished off in the usual way. He had mounted some
blood corpuscles of the whale in this way. and found it answered admirably,
but of course he could not tell how it would stand the test of time. He
thought the process worth trying, but it would require some years to really
test its permanence.

The President remarked that any plan which required slides to be set on
edge, for drawing or otherwise, was objectionable. Fluid mounts should be
kept perfectly flat, or the object would be sure to move, especially when
mounted in glycerine.

Mr. Groves said it was necessary to clear up the last trace of glycerine.
The most convenient method was to moisten a sable or camel hair brush
between the lips, and so wipe up the surplus glycerine. That answered
better than bibulous paper. In cementing down the covers, especially square
ones, it was a good plan to make a line or ring of cement on the slip a little
way from the cover and a similar line on the cover, and then with a brush
full of the cement bridge over the space between the two lines of cement.

Mr. Ingpen inquired if the bichromate of potash was likely to be acted upon
by the glycerine. He feared that if the glycerine got at it, having such a
solvent power on salts of that kind, it might be detrimental. He observed-
thatthe papers just read had some extra interest in the knowledge that Dr.

211

Whittell, who was in England for nearly two years, took a great interest in
the Club and formed a number of friendships among the members. He had
not forgotten them, and had not only sent them some communications, but
had forwarded him a newspaper in which was mentioned how he had
brought the subject of diffraction spectra before the Microscopical Society of
Victoria to their great astonishment. It was quite a new idea to them.
Dr. Whittell took great interest in the optical parts of the microscope.

Mr. W. Dalton Smith said those who had experienced difficulty in sealing
glycerine mounts would find the plau he adopted useful. He made a pre-
paration of five parts of asphalt, one of the newest Canada balsam, and one
of gold size, by measure, with sufficient benzole or turpentine to make the
mixture sufficiently thin for use. He then made a cell of the size required
and left it until wanted. It would remain sticky for one or two months, so
much so that the cover would adhere quite firmly with simple pressure, and
all trace of glycerine could be washed off. The slide could then be rubbed
dry without fear of injuring the object or moving the cover, and could be
finished with Ward's brown cement or any preparation of that kind. He
believed such slides would be found permanent.

Mr. T. C. White remarked that he had used coaguline, but found that it
contracted so much that the cover glass was broken all to pieces.

Mr. Hailes said he used ordinary gum mucilage, which was entirely
changed in character by using the bichromate of potash. The gum should
not be allowed to dry, but merely to set, then by dropping a little bichromate
on the cover, it acted rapidly upon the gum, which by exposure to the light
became insoluble in water. The slide could then be washed off and
finished.

Mr White observed that he did not know the effect of adding bichromate
of potash to gum. He knew it acted in that way with gelatine. This was
useful for making large trays water-tight, giving them a coat of glue and
then treating with bichromate of potash.

The President suggested that perhaps gum tragacanth could be used. It
would certainly be insoluble.

Mr. Hailes replied that he thought gum tragacanth would shrink too
much to be used for that purpose.

Mr. T. C. White reminded the members of the suggestion he had made in
a casual communication to the Club some time ago. A mixture of gold
size and indiarubber dissolved in benzole, to which was added some of the
shellac called French glue. It required to be put on thin and dried very
quickly. When dry another ring could be run on, and the slide finished in
the usual way. This cell gave sufficient elasticity to allow the glycerine to
expand, and any kind of finish could be used.

The cordial thanks of the meeting were then given to Dr. Whittell for his
communication.

The President, in announcing the arrangements for the ensuing month,
specially referred to the satisfactory demonstration given at the last con-
versational meeting, and mentioned that the second of the series would be
given on the 12th proximo " On Photomicrography," by Mr. T. C. White.

212

Mr White observed that in view of that demonstration he had brought
with him some photographs, which he did not put forward as specimens of
photography, but as a method of illustrating objects which were shown
under the microscope, so as to be easily appreciated by observers. It was a
trying experience with many to stand by their microscope and explain the
different parts of the object to be observed. He had used these photographs
with a few letters and figures as references, and was thus relieved of further
trouble in explaining the object. He wished to show how members could do
this for themselves, by using dry plates, during the dark winter evenings.

By permission of the President, Mr. A. W. Stokes invited the members to
assist at the Inaugural Soiree to be given by the Association of Medical
Students at the Holborn Town Hall at the end of January.

The proceedings terminated in the usual Conversazione, at which the
following objects were exhibited : —

Selected Foraminifera from Florida ... Mr. H. E. Freeman.

Podura Scale, and Amphipleura pellucida/

with Messrs. Powell and Lealand's oil

Immersion 1-12 objective N.A. 143 and

vertical illuminator

Mr. E. M. Nelson.

Section of Leaf of Hedychium Gardneri-") ,» j -.y t> p j

anum, double stained

213

Notes on Vaucheria.
By M. C. Cooke, M.A., A.L.S., &c, President.

{Read January 26th, 1883.)

The structure and development of Vaucheria lias been so often
and so well studied and illustrated, that the observation of any new
features is quite unexpected, and will probably encounter some
opposition, or at least excite some doubt. One of the generally
accepted conclusions is, that the threads of Vaucheria are con-
tinuous throughout their length, only presenting septa at the time
of reproduction, when the short branchlets are isolated for that
purpose. At all events, successive septation of the main filament
does not appear to have been recognised by anyone who has written
,upon this family. Gf its development, it is stated that "the
lower part of the germ cell grows out into a branched pale-coloured
root, and the upper part is elongated in a still more considerable
degree into a stem-like filament, which grows on and on by apical
development until its growth is finally arrested by fructification."
That is, in effect, the recognition of Vaucheria as unicellular.

During the keen weather at the commencement of the present
winter, Mr Frederic Bates, of Leicester, collected some filaments
of Vaucheria from under the ice, and upon submitting them to the
microscope discovered that the main threads were much divided by
septa. He sent me portions of these threads mounted, and as
there was no positive evidence of the filaments belonging to
Vaucheria, at once I was prompted to reject his conclusion, and
affirm that some filaments of Cladophora must have been mixed
with the Vaucheria, for not only were the threads distinctly sep-
tate, but there was an accumulation of plasma in the cells, and an
appearance as of differentiation. Subsequently, however, all doubts
were removed, for I obtained a part of the gathering, and saw the
oogonia and antheridia so characteristic of Vaucheria, seated on
filaments which, at a short distance were septate in a similar

Jouen. Q. M. C, Series II., No. 5. R

214 M, c. cooke's notes on vaucheria.

manner to the previously examined thread. The whole gathering
showed a great preponderance of septate filaments, divided com-
pletely, and somewhat constricted at the joints, some of the cells
being two and others three times, or more, the diameter in length.
Filaments which did not bear Oogonia, or only one or two, being
most divided. Approaching the subject with a strong feeling ad-
verse to the production of veritable septa, every precaution was
taken, I think, to prevent any misinterpretation, and I was com-
pelled against my first impression to accept the fact that the fila-
ments of this undoubted Vaucheria had become divided off into
cells, at the period of fructification.

The appearance of these cells, in some sense differed from con-
tinuous threads, in that the plasma was collected towards one end,
or the centre of the cells, and in many instances was dense, ap-
parently mingled with oval bodies as if undergoing, or had under-
gone, differentiation. It must be stated that the filaments were
very much coated with small Diatomacece and other minute Alga3,
so that the view was obstructed.

The question which at once suggested itself was, as to the
object of this septation. And here it may be suggested that the
single asexual zoospore, produced in small numbers, and the single
oospore produced in the oogonia always had appeared to be a very
sparse provision for the reproduction of the species, as compared
with the large number of zoogonidia, which are produced in every
fertile cell of Cladophora and Chcetomorpha. Even in the
BotrTjdiacea, the multiplex modes of reproduction are strongly in
contrast with what has been known as the reproductive process in
Vaucheria. For these reasons there does not appear to be any im-
probability in the supposition that zoogonidia may be produced in
Vaucheria in cells, divided off for that purpose. The formation of
the cells, the accumulation of the cytioplasm, acquiring density,
and as I strongly believe, differentiation lend strength to the prob-
ability that reproduction by zoogonidia may yet be discovered in
Vaucheria. We failed, both Mr. Bates and myself, to detect any
active zoogonidia, but we have both seen bodies of a definite form,
resembling zoogonidia at rest, in the cells, and in the water in
which the gathering was kept were found similar bodies outside the
threads, some in a state of germination. It must not be supposed
that we affirm, or have direct evidence to affirm either that
zoogonidia are produced in the cells, or that the free germinating

M. c. cooke's notes on vaucheria. 215

bodies are escaped zoogonidia, but these circumstances are men-
tioned as showing how necessary it is that Vaucheria should
again become the subject of investigation, for the purpose of dis-
covering, beyond doubt, what is the cause and true interpretation
of this unsuspected septation of the filament.

216

On a Newly Discovered British Sponge.

By J. G. Waller.
{Read February 23, 1883.)

PLATE VIII.

I have the pleasure of bringing before you another sponge, which
I believe to be new to the British fauna, making the third I have
discovered within a very small range of coast. And I think I
shall also have one more for a future occasion, found within the
same limits, viz., from the eastern promontory of Torbay to its
central shore at Paignton. Now, considering that my opportunities,
when staying at Torquay, professionally engaged, have been re-
stricted to very brief visits to the shore, it justifies what has been
expressed by Dr. Bowerbank, and again by his editor, the Rev. A.
M. Norman (" Brit. Spongiadas," Vol. iv.,p. 4) how much more our
coasts may yield to this department. Dr. Bowerbank says, alluding
to the increasing number of species, " It is strikingly apparent,
from the many new species continually being found among the
sponges dredged and otherwise collected by British naturalists, that
those already described do not by any means comprise the whole of
our British fauna ; and it is highly probable that future labourers
in this interesting field of natural history will add very considerably
to their number." Mr. Norman, in alluding to a table compiled by
him, showing geographical distribution says (p. 4) : — " The table
makes it clear that the sponge fauna of many parts of our seas re-
mains almost wholly unexplored ; and it is hoped that the very de-
ficiency exhibited here will have a tendency, among other causes,
to induce our younger and rising naturalists to take up the great
field of research which here lies open to them. Speaking from a
very extended knowledge of the zoology of our coasts, I unhesitat-
ingly state that no other class of animals offers to the student so
rich a field for exploration, or one in which he is likely to meet with
60 many hitherto unknown species."

My own small experience testifies in the same direction. None
of the species described by me are found in Dr. Bowerbank's Vol.
iv. lately issued. Yet it may be of use, if I state that my modes

J. G. WALLER ON A NEWLY DISCOVERED BRITISH SPONGE. 217

of exploration were by no means elaborate. I simply used such
opportunities as were afforded me, out of the very spare time at my
command, and kept my eyes well employed. Only one did I find
alive and in situ, and that was obtained in a single visit to Paignton
rocks at dead low water, spring tides. To those who would study
these organisms, I would recommend my own practice of picking
up the roots of Laminaria, which are great gatherers of sponges ;
and many interesting species I have obtained in this manner, besides
one entirely new to our fauna, which I have described.* Those
therefore, who would commence the study need not frighten them-
selves at a necessity for dredging ; they would find plenty to occupy
them on what are cast upon the shore after rough weather, and
examining rocks at low water with a sharp exercise of their visual
faculties. So numerous a society as ours could most surely help
beneficially in the study to a greater extent than is now done ; I am
quite sure of this, that whoever has courage to begin will most
surely go on. Our friend and colleague, Mr. Priest, is a proof of
this, and will quite bear out my opinion.

The sponge, I am about to describe, was found on an oyster shell
cast up on the shore, filled with Cliona Northumbrica, at Hope's
Nose, that wild promontory which terminates the eastern side of
Torbay. It is an ancient landslip, which has surged forward to the
sea, and one of our last winters witnessed a slight extension of the
process, carrying with it an interesting example of contorted strata.
Here the sewerage of Torquay now pours forth into the sea, and the
olfactory nerves of a visitor are not always agreeably affected. But
it is rather amusing to note the crowd of seagulls floating close about
the out-flow; whether enjoying it or whether sitting in sanitary con-
gress, we have no means to determine. All my late visits 1 had to
myself, and I do not think it is now thought quite a place for a
boating party to picnic at. To be there at the decline of day,
with a rising wind and overcast sky, and occasionally a half-human
cry from the sea-birds, gives to the position a lonely dreariness,
which only the pursuit of natural history could make you quite
ignore. But it affords such an abundant means of study, in its rock
pools, crevices, &c, of all kinds of marine life, that hours may
quickly pass away in profit. I generally returned with a miscel.
laneous assemblage of pebbles, shells, &c, &c, in my pockets, and
one result is the new sponge.

* "Journal of Quekett Microscopical Club," Vol. vi., p. 97, et seq.

218 J. G. WALLER OX A NEWLY DISCOVERED BRITISH SPONGE.

Without the microscope it would not have been discovered ; for it
was by passing it over the shell, examining numerous incrustations,
that I noticed a small patch of bihamate spicules. The patch was not
bigger than an eighth of an inch, but so difficult to detach from the
shell's rough surface, that a large part was destroyed in the process ;
it belongs to the lowest form of the filmy sponges. The tiny object
therefore, which I secured and mounted, is rather under l-20th of
an inch in diameter ; but it would exceed this if it could all be
flattened out, by treble that size. As it is, however, fortunately it
exhibits all the characteristics of the sponge, which is one of the
most interesting of its kind it has been my fortune to see, and intro-
duces us to a form of spicule not hitherto found, as far as my pre-
sent knowledge goes, in the Spongidse. This alone would make us
rejoice in the discovery, though it is not the only point of interest.

My specimen partially coats a fragment of oyster-shell, as also
portions of a structureless substance, like the glutinous lining of
the tubes of annelids, and seems to belong to Dr. Bowerbank's
genus Hymeraplua. The simplicity of structure which marks
this class is shown by its consisting of a membrane, strengthened
with spicules. In this example the membrane is very trans-
lucent, and scarcely visible when mounted in balsam. Upon
this is a skeleton made of clavate cylindro-arcuate spicules,
somewhat long and disposed in fasciculi (Fig. 1), these being loosely
connected by a few single spicules of the same kind. They measure
30-4000ths of an inch. (Fig. 2.) But one of the most distinctive
features is, that the membrane is bound together by a close inter-
lacing of contort bihamate spicules, very numerous, and making a
confused network. The normal size of these is 7-4000ths of an
inch. Intermingled with these are others of the same form and
character ; but nearly three times the size, very few in number,
whose purpose might fairly be supposed to clamp and strengthen this
network. (Figs. 3, 4, 5.) There are also anch orate spicules along with
this reticulated mass. Some large, tridentate, and bidentate of same
kind ; equi-anchorate, few in number ; others very small, more abun-
dant ; often very difficult to detect in the confusion of the bihamate
network ; and some very minute, which may more possibly be con-
sidered to be in an undeveloped state. The large forms are re-
markable in the unequal character of the flukes. In the bidentate
one flange is smaller than the other ; the tridentate has a fine
projection from one central tooth, and the other fluke has a

J. G. WALLER ON A NEWLY DISCOVERED BRITISH SPONGE. 219

kind of duplicate flange, only to be expressed in the given
figure. (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9.) There are also a few arcuate entirely
spined forms of spicules, projecting through the membrane ; the
spines are minute, but more developed at the base : these are very
sparsely distributed. (Fig. 10.) Lastly comes the curious and novel
shape, also in the reticulation of the membrane, and intermingled
with it. It is in the form of forceps, as sugar-tongs, or more nearly
a lady's hair-pin. The shafts are cylindrical and equal throughout,
incipiently spinous, but very slightly denned, giving a somewhat
uneven look to the whole, and they are rounded at the terminations,
where in some specimens they slightly diverge from the straight
line. At what may be called the spring of the forceps is a bulbous
heart-shaped development, but this is only found on one side. (Figs.
11, 12.) This form averages in length about 6-4000ths of an
inch. It is sparsely distributed, but is more numerous than
the large bihamate or the spinous arcuate spicule, and some
embryonic forms are here and there to be seen developing
on the membranes. (Fig. 13 a.) None such has before
been discovered in the s23onges, but an instance of a forcepi-
form shape is figured by Dr. Bowerbank (Vol. iii., PI. XLIIL),
as belonging to his species Halichondria forceps. In this,
however, the shafts are long and unequal, and it is entirely spined .

Exotic sponges give us some varieties of the forcepiform spicule.
In the " Annals and Magazine of Natural History," 4th Series,
Vol. xiv., Mr. Carter figures and describes two examples. One is
from a sponge found in the dredgings of the " Porcupine," from the
Atlantic Ocean ; another from an arenaceous dredging